King’s Research Portal DOI: 10.26613/jca/3.1.40 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication record in King's Research Portal Citation for published version (APA): Allington, D. (2020). Antisemitism in the Urban Dictionary and the responsibilities of online publishers. Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism, 3(1), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.26613/jca/3.1.40 Citing this paper Please note that where the full-text provided on King's Research Portal is the Author Accepted Manuscript or Post-Print version this may differ from the final Published version. If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. And where the final published version is provided on the Research Portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections. 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Oct. 2021 JCA 2020 (DOI: 10.26613/jca/3.1.40) Antisemitism in the Urban Dictionary and the Responsibilities of Online Publishers Daniel Allington Abstract This article focuses on antisemitic and racist content in the Urban Dictionary: a global top-1000 website built upon user-generated content. It argues that the Urban Dictionary’s founding principles have directly facilitated the site’s exploitation as a platform for the dissemination of antisemitic hate speech and white supremacist ideology. These principles can be seen as typifying the free speech absolutism that became dominant within the US tech industry during the 1990s. However, the right to free expression cannot reasonably be taken to exempt internet companies from responsibility for content whose publication they facilitate. The article concludes by arguing that websites such as the Urban Dictionary are essentially publishers, and that the solution to the problem of their indulgence of big- ots may be for those who do not wish to be associated with bigotry to refrain from doing business with institutions that publish content that they consider abhorrent. Keywords alt-right, antizionism, brand contamination, definitions, dictionaries, free speech, Urban Dictionary, user-generated content, Web 2.0 INTRODUCTION instantly available at all times. This article focuses on the ways in which multiple definitions and By defining and modelling correct and/or appro- examples within the Urban Dictionary—a slang priate usage for the words of a language, lexi- dictionary featuring user-generated content— cographers can exercise a subtle influence on appear to have been constructed in order to those who use them. Tom Dickins explains their communicate and normalize an antisemitic and particular role as follows: white supremacist worldview. Much of the “ideological” content of a dictio- nary resides in the detail. Dictionaries may Identifying Antisemitism not offer the scope of a textbook or a political pamphlet to re-interpret past and present real- When antisemites speak plainly, their bigotry ities, but, unlike other publications, they are a is readily apparent. However, much antisemitic constant source of reference and users tend to discourse is expressed in subtle and coded ways, 2 trust them implicitly.1 especially online. In identifying examples of antisemitism, this article therefore draws on the Such trust may be diminished when a International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance dictionary does not have authoritative status. Working Definition of Antisemitism (hence- However, in the online world, non-authoritative forth, the IHRA Definition), which both recog- but open-access texts may be a far more constant nizes antisemitism as a “perception”—that is, as source of reference, as they are easily and almost cognitive or ideational in character, and thus not Daniel Allington limited to behavioural or emotional hostility— to have been written in order to justify twen- and recognizes that this perception may be tieth century antisemitic views.7 inherent in certain ways of thinking about Israel Although Type I lexicographic bigotry is, no less than in classic antisemitic tropes.3 This thanks to twenty-first-century preoccupation is an acknowledgement of what has been called with verbal hygiene, perhaps the most easily “the new antisemitism” or “antizionist antisem- recognized, types II and III are arguably more itism”: what might more straightforwardly be dangerous, as they perpetuate understandings referred to as ‘Israel-related antisemitism.’4 of the world that can serve as a motivation or justification for persecution and violence. In Three Lexicographic Forms of Bigotry the body of this article, all three types shall be used as a framework for understanding bigotry Alongside the above, this article employs a as expressed in dictionary definitions published novel three-part typology of means by which on a single popular website. it is assumed that bigotry can be expressed or communicated through dictionary definitions and examples. These means are as follows: The Urban Dictionary Type I: definitions and usage examples for Founded in 1999 and operating out of the hateful slurs, which do not make clear that usage United States, the Urban Dictionary is a of the slurs is unacceptable, or which argue well-established Web 2.0 site, predating that their unacceptability is to be regretted. Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and even Contemporary lexicographers are very much Wikipedia. According to the web traffic analytics aware of this form of bigotry. For example, in service, Alexa Internet, Urban Dictionary 1998 Merriam-Webster responded to criticism falls comfortably within the world’s top 1000 by revising its definition of “nigger” as “a black internet sites, ranging between 640th and 757th person” or “a member of any dark-skinned place from September to December 2019, and race” to begin with a warning that would leave receiving incoming links from more sites than readers “in no doubt that the word offends most the average for what that particular service people.”5 regards as its four main competitors, that is, Type II: definitions and usage examples for Merriam Webster (which ranged between 599th terms denoting specific groups that make sense and 515th place in the world rankings during only given a bigoted and stereotypical under- the same period), dictionary.com (which ranged standing of those groups. A good example between 847th and 634th), the Free Dictionary of this is the use of the word “jew” as a verb (between 635th and 688th), and the Cambridge meaning “haggle”—this behaviour being a University Press website (337th and 334th).8 stereotypical attribute of Jews. It was not until At the time of writing, the Wikipedia page for 2019 that the Association of British Scrabble Urban Dictionary cites numerous indicators Players removed that definition from its offi- of the site’s influence, including its official use cial dictionary, following lobbying from the as a legal resource.9 It can further be observed Community Security Trust.6 that Google searches for current examples of Type III: definitions and usage examples inten- internet slang often place the Urban Dictionary tionally designed to encode bigoted understand- very highly. For example, the Urban Dictionary ings of the world. Examples can be found in the page for “chonky”—an affectionate word used Nazi-era Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen to describe overweight animals—was placed Testament, multiple entries within which appear first in the Google rankings as of the time of 2 Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism Antisemitism in the Urban Dictionary and the Responsibilities of Online Publishers writing, when browsing privately from the ANTISEMITISM AS MANIFEST IN URBAN United Kingdom.10 DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES There appears to have been only a single Type I scholarly attempt to theorize the Urban Dictionary. Caroline Tagg writes as follows: It is possible to locate many entries for racial, ethnic, religious, and sexual slurs on the Urban Its purpose is to document slang usage as Dictionary. This in itself is not necessarily a bad defined by its users, and it accepts multiple and thing. Whether a dictionary entry should be contrasting definitions of the same word. It also considered bigoted depends not on the word accepts neologisms invented for the purpose being defined but on the precise form of the of entering them into the dictionary. These definition and examples. often serve to document or highlight existing The top entry for the word “kike” appro- concepts or practices. priately defines the word as “[a] racist name As [Urban Dictionary’s] founder, Aaron for a Jewish person,” while the second iden- Peckham puts it, “Every single word on here is tifies it as a “racial slur” and the third as “a written by someone with a point of view, with degrading way of calling someone a Jew”; the a personal experience of the word in the entry”. fifth and sixth were similar. However, several The contrast between Wikipedia and Urban highly placed definitions of the word appear to Dictionary is similar to that between [wikis] have been constructed in order to suggest that and blogs, which Myers has theorised in terms its use should not be regarded as offensive.