Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 259 (2019) 70–74 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resphysiol Medium term effects of physical conditioning on breath-hold diving performance T ⁎ F.A. Fernandeza, , R. Martin-Martinb, I. García-Camachab, D. Juarezc, P. Fidelb, J.M. González-Ravéc a Breatherapy, Faculty of Health, CSEU La Salle, Madrid, Spain b Statistics and Operational Research Area, University of Castilla-la Mancha, Toledo, Spain c Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: The current study aimed to analyze the effects of physical conditioning inclusion on apnea performance after a Apnea 22-week structured apnea training program. Twenty-nine male breath-hold divers participated and were allo- Hypoxia cated into: (1) cross-training in apnea and physical activity (CT; n = 10); (2) apnea training only (AT; n = 10); Training and control group (CG; n = 9). Measures were static apnea (STA), dynamic with fins (DYN) and dynamic no fins Respiratory (DNF) performance, body composition, hemoglobin, vital capacity (VC), maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max), resting metabolic rate, oxygen saturation, and pulse during a static apnea in dry conditions at baseline and after the intervention. Total performance, referred as POINTS (constructed from the variables STA, DNF and DYN) was used as a global performance variable on apnea indoor diving. + 30, +26 vs. + 4 average POINTS of difference after-before training for CT, AT and CG respectively were found. After a discriminant analysis, CT appears to be the most appropriate for DNF performance. The post-hoc analysis determined that the CT was the only group in which the difference of means was significant before and after training for the VC (p < 0.01) and VO2max (p < 0.05) variables. Inclusion of physical activity in apnea training increased VC and VO2max in breath hold divers; divers who followed a mixed training, physical training and hypoxic training, achieved increased DNF performance. 1. Introduction training were studied independently. The effects of physical training on apnea performance are controversial. While Bavagad showed in his In apnea indoor diving competition, breath-hold diverscompete to study (Bagavad, 2014) a correlation between physical conditioning remain immersed as long as possible in static apnea (STA), and to dive with apnea performance, Schagatay (Schagatay, 2000) did not find the longest distance in the categories dynamic with fins (DYN) and effects on apnea performance; however, this latter research concluded dynamic no fins (DNF). Adverse effects, such as decompression sickness that physical training increased stamina, allowing prolongation of the (Batle, 1999), narcosis or arterial embolism (Batle, 2002), observed struggle phase of apnea. In addition, a few longitudinal research studies during deep events, are not going to occur in the pool practice where of apnea training have been conducted (Schagatay, 2000; Bagavad, the diver submerges barely 2 m; thus, hypoxic syncope is the main risk 2014; Fernández, 2015). The current study aimed to analyze the effects during apnea indoor practice (Fitz-Clarke, 2006). of physical conditioning inclusion on apnea performance after a 22- Recent improvements in equipment, nutrition, and training have led week structured apnea training program. to increases in apnea performance (Schagatay, 2009, 2010; Fernández, 2015). Practice and training is mainly responsible for performance in 2. Materials and methods breath-hold divers; however, it is difficult to establish a rigid training model that suits all divers with different levels of ability, age, previous 2.1. Participants physical condition or anthropometry. The effects of physical activity on apnea performance have not been Twenty-nine male breath-hold divers (36 ± 5 years of age) with clarified, probably because the effects of physical training and apnea two years of experience in breath-hold diving were divided in different ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F.A. Fernandez). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2018.07.013 Received 30 April 2018; Received in revised form 26 July 2018; Accepted 30 July 2018 Available online 03 August 2018 1569-9048/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. F.A. Fernandez et al. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 259 (2019) 70–74 training programs: (I) cross-training in apnea and physical conditioning clip was placed and the participant would make a relaxed, but max- (CT; n = 10); (II) apnea training (AT; n = 10); and (III) control group imum inspiration, at the end of which the mouthpiece would be placed; (CG; n = 9). No training intervention was carried out on the CG; then, he was to perform slow expiration, maintaining a constant flow however, regarding pre-post measurements, both the CG and the ex- until residual volume. This procedure was be repeated three times, with perimental groups performed them without any distinction between at least 30 s of rest between each measurement and the highest value of them. The participants were informed of the benefits and risks prior to the three measurements was registered (Wanger, 2005). signing the informed consent document to participate in the research. The incremental test to measure maximal oxygen consumption Participants diagnosed with cardiac, metabolic or respiratory diseases (VO2max)and maximal heart rate was performed on a treadmill (H/P/ ® were excluded. The study was conducted in accordance with the COSMOS 3P 4.0, H / P / Cosmos Sports & Medical, Nussdorf- Declaration of Helsinki (Harris and Atkinson, 2011) and approved by Traunstein, Germany). The volume and composition of expired gases the institutional Human Research Ethics Committee (CSEULS-PI-114/ were measured using a gas analyzer (Ultima CPX, Medical Graphics) 2016). and the heart rate measured by electrocardiogram (WelchAllyn, − CardioPerfect). After a five-minute warm-up at 10 km h 1, the speed − 2.2. Training procedures was increased 1 km h 1 every minute until volitional exhaustion of the participant. Throughout the test the treadmill elevation was maintained All participants conducted 66 sessions of 60-minute of duration at 1%. VO2max was noted as the average of the two highest values of each. During the first session, CT was performed for 15 min with a dry 15 s of VO2 consecutive reached toward the end of the test, as long as strength circuit of 10 calisthenic exercises - squat, pull-up, push-up, the values of VO2 and HR have stabilized despite the increase in the squat, pull-up, push-up, squat, pull-up, push-up and squat- with 50 intensity of the effort. repetitions and 10 s of recovery. This was followed by swimming Resting metabolic rate was measured, breath-to-breath (Ultima training in crawl, alternating each week between 45 min of swimming CPX, Medical Graphics), over 15 min by indirect calorimetry. According continuous training (14 RPE) and high intensive interval training (HIIT) to a previous study (Melanson et al., 2002), a minimum of 15 min of (20 RPE). Regarding HIIT, volume and density were 3 series x 10 re- steady state, determined as < 10% fluctuation in oxygen consumption petitions of 25 m with 20 s of recovery. During the second session, and < 5% fluctuation in respiratory exchange ratio between CO2 and participants performed a specific hypoxic training in dynamic, that O2, was considered criteria for valid resting metabolic rate(RMR). consisted of 40 repetitions of 25 m dynamic apneas to maximum in- Participants performed the test in fasting conditions after 12 h without dividual underwater swimming speed with 20 s of recovery each 25 m. physical effort. The environmental conditions established were as fol- In the third session, divers conducted a specific hypoxic training in lows: a quiet laboratory with the lights off, 550 m of altitude, static. In this training divers performed 3 maximal static apneas with 22.5 ± 1 °C, with 55 ± 3% relative humidity. 10 min of full recovery between each apnea. Heart rate and oxygen saturation were monitored during a maximal The AT group, performed a specific hypoxic training in dynamic, on static apnea in dry conditions. Before beginning the test, the diver the first and second session, and a specific hypoxic training in static, on rested for 10 min in the prone position, with head and upper limbs the third session. Glossopharyngeal insufflation (Seccombe, 2006) was leaning on a table placed in front of the stretcher. During the last 30 s of not allowed during training for any group. the countdown, a nose clip was placed to avoid possible air leakage. At that point, the participant performed a maximal exhalation followed by 2.3. Test procedures a maximal inspiration; glossopharyngeal insufflation was not allowed. Throughout the static apnea test, the average heart rate (HRavg) and the Measurements were performed under similar environmental con- minimum heart rate (HRmin) were recorded. To calculate the HRavg, ditions in a sports laboratory, a health center and a 25-meter pool with only the heart rate data after first 30 s were analyzed; i.e., once the 2-meter depth. The test battery sequence was performed chron- heart rate was stabilized (Breskovic, 2012). The oxygen saturation was ologically in five visits in different days, as follows: Visit 1– STA; Visit 2 monitored by a pulse oximeter (CMS 50 F) placed on the second finger – DNF; Visit 3– DYN; Visit 4 – body composition, blood count, spiro- of the left hand. A minimal value of oxygen saturation was collected metry and an incremental test on treadmill; Visit 5 – resting metabolic during the test (SpO2min). Time during static apnea in dry conditions rate, and pulse-oximetry during a static apnea in dry conditions. (STAdry) was recorded, also. 2.3.1. STA, DYN and DNF performance 2.4. Statistical analyses Same protocol was performed, previous to apnea, to avoid possible warming effects. Thus, before STA, a 15-minute warm-up consisted of The effects of training on performance and physiological variables 10 min of relaxation, two minutes of static apnea and a three-minute were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA).