44178 WORLD BANK WORKING PAPER NO. 145 NO. 145 NO. AFRICA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT SERIES Differentiation and Articulation in Tertiary Education Systems is part of the World Bank Working Paper series. Differentiation and Articulation in These papers are published to communicate the results of Public Disclosure Authorized the Bank’s ongoing research and to stimulate public discus- sion. Tertiary Education Systems This paper explores an area of tertiary education that is currently understudied—the extent and nature of differentia- Differentiation and ArticulationDifferentiation Tertiary and in Systems Education tion and articulation in African tertiary education systems. A Study of Twelve Countries The overall finding of the study is that a binary system is dominant, characterized by universities and polytechnics as distinct types of institutions. Differentiation is clearly evident in Africa, though mostly horizontal as opposed to vertical. Articulation, on the other hand, seems to be in its infancy, as some universities, in their admission requirements, do not Njuguna Ng’ethe recognize polytechnic qualifications, and mobility between George Subotzky similar institution types is rare. National policy, market George Afeti Public Disclosure Authorized forces, institutional reforms, industry, and regional initiatives drive differentiation. Resource constraints, isomorphism, governance and funding structures, and the absence of debate over size and shape act as inhibitors. Demand for access appears to be the only driver for articulation, while national policies, internal governance structures, and industry/labour market inhibit its growth. World Bank Working Papers are available individually or on standing order. Also available online through the World Bank e-Library (www.worldbank.org/elibrary). Public Disclosure Authorized ISBN 978-0-8213-7546-4 THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA Telephone: 202 473-1000 Public Disclosure Authorized Internet: www.worldbank.org SKU 17546 E-mail: [email protected] WP145_FMr.qxd:WP145_FM.qxd 4/8/08 2:39 PM Page i WORLD BANK WORKING PAPER NO. 145 Differentiation and Articulation in Tertiary Education Systems A Study of Twelve African Countries Njuguna Ng’ethe George Subotzky George Afeti THE WORLD BANK Washington, D.C. WP145_FM.qxd 4/4/08 10:27 AM Page ii Copyright © 2008 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First Printing: April 2008 printed on recycled paper 1 2 3 4 5 11 10 09 08 World Bank Working Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank’s work to the development community with the least possible delay. 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WP145_FM.qxd 4/4/08 10:27 AM Page iii Contents Foreword . vii Acknowledgments . ix About the Authors . xi Acronyms and Abbreviations . xiii Executive Summary . xvii Part I: Comparative Analysis and Conclusions . 1 1. Higher Education Differentiation and Articulation in Context . 3 Objectives of the Study . 4 How the Study was Conducted . 5 The Ideas and Issues . 5 Framework of Analysis . 16 2. Differentiation and Articulation in Sub-Saharan Africa . 21 Observations from the Literature . 21 Nature of Differentation . 22 3. Drivers and Inhibitors of Differentiation and Articulation . 31 Drivers of Differentiation . 31 Inhibitors of Differentiation . 34 Drivers and Inhibitors of Articulation . 36 Summary . 38 4. Differentiation and Articulation: Policies and Practices from Other Regions . 39 Historical Reference Points: United Kingdom and France . 39 Chile . 40 Korea . 41 Singapore . 42 The Bologna Process . 43 5. Towards Policy Options for Improved Tertiary Education . 45 Perspectives and Interpretations . 45 Points for Policy Consideration . 49 Topics for Future Research . 51 iii WP145_FM.qxd 4/4/08 10:27 AM Page iv iv Contents Part II: Country Case Studies . 53 6. Cameroon . 55 Background . 56 The Higher Education Sector . 56 7. Ghana . 61 Background . 62 The Higher Education Sector . 63 Relationship between Universities and Polytechnics . 65 8. Kenya . 69 Background . 70 The Higher Education System . 70 Differentiation between Universities and National Polytechnics . 74 Articulation between/among Universities and National Polytechnics . 76 Conclusions and Challenges . 77 9. Malawi . 81 Background . 82 The Higher Education System . 82 Systemic Characteristics: Governance, Regulation, and Funding . 85 Articulation and Interface between Universities and Polytechnics . 86 Conclusions and Main Challenges . 86 10. Mozambique . 89 Background . 90 The Higher Education System . 90 Systemic Characteristics . 92 Articulation and Interface between the University and Polytechnic Sectors . 94 Conclusion: Principal Challenges and Concerns . 94 11. Nigeria . 97 Background . 98 The Higher Education Sector . 98 Relationship between Universities and Polytechnics . ..