ABSTRACT COMMUNITY APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: SACRED AND NON-SACRED LANDSCAPES IN NEPAL by Deen Bandhu Bhatta This study examines the different kinds of management approaches practiced by local people in far-western Nepal for the management and conservation of two kinds of forests, sacred groves and community forests. It reveals the role of traditional religious beliefs, property rights, and the central government, as well as the importance of traditional ecological knowledge and local participation in management and conservation of the natural resources. In Nepal, the ties of local people with the forest are strong and inseparable. Forest management is an important part of the local livelihood strategies. Local forest management is based on either religious and cultural or utilitarian components of the local community. Management of the sacred grove is integrated with the religious and cultural aspects, whereas the management of the community forest is associated with the utility aspects. Overall, the management strategies applied depend on the needs of the local people. COMMUNITY APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: SACRED AND NON-SACRED LANDSCAPES IN NEPAL A Practicum Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Environmental Science Institute of Environmental Sciences By Deen Bandhu Bhatta Miami University Oxford, Ohio 2003 Advisor___________________________ Adolph Greenberg Reader______________________________ Gene Willeke Reader_____________________________ Sandra Woy-Hazleton Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii List of Tables v List of Figures v Abbreviations vi Glossary vii Chapter I Introduction 1 Overview 1 Sacred Groves 3 Bathyau Patal 5 Community Forests 6 Sirad Community Forest 6 Chapter II Study Area and Methodology 8 Study area 8 Methodology 11 Interview 11 Direct observation 12 Written documents 12 Data analysis 13 Chapter III Results 14 Community approaches to the management of the sacred grove 14 Factors related to the sustainable management and conservation of the sacred grove 16 I. Belief system 16 II. Property right 17 III. Location of the grove and Mashanies 17 IV. Local knowledge of forest resources 18 V. Rituals and Perception 18 Current issues and future strategies for management and conservation of the sacred grove 19 Community approaches to the management of Sirad Community Forest 20 ii Chapter IV Discussion 25 Overview 25 Bathyau Patal 25 Sirad Community Forest 29 Chapter V Conclusion 31 References 33 Appendix A. Introduction and community consent form 41 Appendix B. Introduction and participant consent form 42 iii List of Tables 1. Informants role and numbers 11 2. Collection constraints for different forest products from Sirad Community Forest 22 3. Punishment pattern for the illegal collection of forest products from Sirad Community Forest. 23 List of Figures 1. Map of the study area 9 iv Abbreviations DFO District Forest Officer FUG Forest Users Committee HMG His Majesty’s Government Rs Rupees SCF Sirad Community Forest SCFUC Sirad Community Forest Users Committee US Users Committee VDC Village Development Committee v Glossary Bharanya In charge of the god’s property Boka Uncastrated male goat Devdyar A sacred tree species (Cedrus deorara) for Bashulinga community Dhami Healer Luto A stand to dry corn Mashanies Lesser deities Panna Priest Patal Forest Ropani Measurement unit for land (1 ropani = 5476 ft.) Suko thuno Dead branch Syaula Dead fallen leaves vi Acknowledgement This study was a great learning experience. It provided an excellent opportunity to understand the ties between a community and natural resources, to study the role of culture, religious belief and property rights to the management of natural resources, to compare community-driven management and government controlled management practices, and to examine the changes in adaptive strategies over time. This study has been possible due to the assistance and support of many people. First, I would like to thank my advisors, Dr. Adolph Greenberg, Dr. Gene Willeke, and Dr. Sandra Woy-Hazleton for their guidance, interest and flexibility. Second, I would like to thank the Institute of Environmental Sciences and Miami University for the education and training that I received through them. Thanks also to the Department of Microbiology for providing me a graduate assistantship during my study at Miami and to the Department of Botany for providing funds for the fieldwork for this study. Next, I am grateful to the Bashulinga community and all interviewees for their acceptance, information and help. Thanks also to government officers at local, and district levels for providing valuable information for my study. Finally, I would like to thank my family, friends and relatives for their continuous love, support and patience. vii Chapter I Introduction Overview Community-based knowledge and property rights play central roles in the management of natural resources. Such community-based approaches to environmental management can assist in finding ways to adapt practices better suited to their particular needs or to modify their original objectives to better reflect the management potential of their resources (Wiersum, 1996; Skutsch, 2000; Dangol, 2002). Property rights affect a wide range of resource utilization and community involvement in management in the developing world (Jodha, 1991; Shiva, 1991). They are a major determinant of local participation, and resource productivity and efficiency (Heltberg, 2002). Participation, decentralization and local community involvement are recognized as fundamental elements for the management of natural resources (Klooster, 2000). Generally, property rights and management organizations have their roots in local communities (Meinzen- Dick et al., 2002). Sacred groves are an integral part of the local communities in many parts of the world. Forest management is an important part of the local livelihood strategies. Generally, these strategies relied on traditional ecological knowledge. Traditional ecological knowledge has been found a significant aspect of the sustainable use of natural resources, especially for renewable natural resources (Berkes, 1989; Freeman et al. 1991). Local people have adapted their traditionally and culturally based natural resource management systems to suit changing conditions for centuries (Gokhale, 2001). As a consequence, there has emerged considerable diversity in approaches to the management of natural resources. The management strategies applied depend upon the local people, their culture, and their socioeconomic status. Therefore, legal recognition of the traditional ecological knowledge and local systems of management is required for the successful management and conservation of natural resources. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the different kinds of management and conservation approaches practiced by local people in two different types of forests, the sacred groves and the non-sacred forests. The other objectives are to study the role of community-based knowledge, culture, religious belief and property rights to the management of natural resources, to compare community-driven management and government controlled management practices, to understand the ties between a community and natural resources, and to examine the changes in adaptive strategies over time. To achieve these objectives, I have searched for the answer to the following questions: How do local people in these communities manage natural resources? How do the management practices differ for sacred and non-sacred forests? How do the caste system, and property rights influence the management practices? How 1 does the traditional knowledge pass from one generation to the next? How are restrictions enforced? Finally, what role, if any, does the central government play in the management of these areas? This study was conducted in a higher elevation village of far-western Nepal from May to July of 2002. Nepal is very rich in natural resources. Nepalese people rely heavily on natural resources for their livelihood and socio-economic development. Most of the wild biomass is used for livestock maintenance and fuel (Metz, 1994). Forests are the source of fuel, fodder, food, fertilizer, timber, and medicine for the local people. Ninety-four percent of the households in rural areas depend on fuel wood for cooking and heating (HMG- Nepal Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. 1988). In the Bashulinga VDC, all households until now have relied on fuelwood for cooking and heating. Therefore, the ties of Bashulinga community with the forests are very strong and inseparable. The demands placed on natural resources are accelerating day by day. In many parts of the world, indigenous people have been practicing community-based management of natural resources (Berkes and Farvar, 1988; Cotton, 1996; Singh et al., 1996). Indigenous peoples typically possess a broad and deep knowledge of the natural system in which they live. For instance, they are usually familiar with the rhythms of the seasons and with the native plants and animals (Kaufman and Franz, 2000). They have demonstrated innovative ability and knowledge to maintain their environment (Moles, 1989). This knowledge, which arises from their environment, is specific to that place. Local people often hold abundant site-specific information (Basso, 1996). Local involvement in management is an important component of the indigenous forest management systems