LIFTING THE BAR: A HISTORY OF INCLUSION, EMPOWERMENT AND THE RISE OF WOMEN’S OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTING ____________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Fullerton ____________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Kinesiology ____________________________________ By Paulina Rodriguez Thesis Committee Approval: Professor Matthew P. Llewellyn, Chair Professor Toby Rider, Department of Kinesiology Professor John Gleaves, Department of Kinesiology Summer, 2016 ABSTRACT On November 14, 1996, the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) and the Executive Board of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) met in Cancun, Mexico to discuss an array of administrative and participatory issues regarding the upcoming Sydney Olympic Games. On the agenda in Cancun was one issue that had persistently afflicted the Olympic Movement for over a century: gender inequality. Based on prevailing pseudo-scientific theories of physical vulnerability, as well as the founder of the Olympic Movement Pierre de Coubertin’s own patriarchal attitudes towards female athleticism, women were originally excluded from Olympic competition. Despite decades of intensive lobbying and the gradual dismantling of the walls of exclusion, female athletes still fell short of full equality in the Olympic arena. Weightlifting, for instance, remained open only to men. The Cancun meeting helped change this situation. The IOC Executive Board, boasting the full support of the ANOC, voted on the inclusion of women weightlifters into the Olympic program. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................. iv Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 2. HERE COME THE LADIES! .............................................................................. 9 Men Compete, Women Applaud .......................................................................... 10 The Struggle for Olympic Recognition ................................................................ 12 From Vaudeville to Muscle Beach ...................................................................... 16 Women Receive a Boost from Cold War Politics ................................................ 24 The American Female Athlete and Social Change ............................................... 26 The Rise of Women Lifters .................................................................................. 30 3. AN AMERICAN DREAMS GOES GLOBAL .................................................... 33 The Ladies Carry the Weight ................................................................................ 34 Toward the International Platform ....................................................................... 37 Petitioning the IOC ............................................................................................... 42 The Case for the Female Body ............................................................................. 44 The Fight Must Go On! ........................................................................................ 47 1996: The Year of the Woman ............................................................................. 51 The Fruits of Their Labor ..................................................................................... 52 4. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 56 Why Weightlifting? .............................................................................................. 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 63 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who deserve my gratitude for their assistance in completing this project. First, words cannot describe how grateful I am for Dr. Matthew Llewellyn, his constant support and guidance have helped in my development both as a student and academic. I admire his passion for historical research and I hope to one-day help make a stranger’s dreams come true, as he has done for me. I would also like thank both Dr. Toby Rider and Dr. John Gleaves for serving on my committee, your wealth of knowledge and support have help give this project life. Finally, a thanks to Dr. Traci Statler, for providing those much needed pep-talks. I cannot continue without thanking my parents, Rodolfo and Lucy Rodriguez. It is not an exaggeration to say, I would not be here without them. Thank you for showing me that through hard work, any dream can be attained. I am grateful for all the sacrifices you have made, from leaving your home country and family to working tirelessly to provide the means for an education, los quiero con todo mi corazón, y quiero que sepan, lo que hago es para ustedes. I want to send my love and gratitude to my two beautiful sisters, Ana and Adriana Rodriguez, you guys push me to be better every-day. Thank you for the laughs and support throughout this process. Ana, I want to thank you especially, for introducing me to this beautiful sport and inciting in me the fire to pursue this project. Long hours of studying and writing need to be balanced with laughs, distractions and a couple of glasses of wine, in order to stay sane! I am thankful to have great friends iv and family who have provided that and more. Tanya, words cannot describe how much I appreciate your support, you have been an integral part of this journey, and for that I thank you. Samantha, you have a been a true best friend, thank you for listening and pulling me back from the edge when my fears got the best of me. Last, but definitely not least, I want to take the time to thank my husband, Luis Serrano. Thank for reminding me of my potential, when I fail to see it for myself. This is just as much yours as it is mine, I look forward to continuing this journey with you, I love you! v 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION On November 14, 1996, the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) and the Executive Board of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) met in Cancun, Mexico to discuss an array of administrative and participatory issues regarding the upcoming Sydney Olympic Games.1 On the agenda in Cancun was one issue that had persistently afflicted the Olympic Movement for over a century: gender inequality. Based on prevailing pseudo-scientific theories of physical vulnerability, as well as the founder of the Olympic Movement, Pierre de Coubertin’s own patriarchal attitudes towards female athleticism, women were originally excluded from Olympic competition. Despite decades of intensive lobbying and the gradual dismantling of the walls of exclusion, female athletes still fell short of full equality in the Olympic arena. Weightlifting, for instance, remained open only to men. The Cancun meeting helped change this situation. The IOC Executive Board, boasting the full support of the ANOC, voted on the inclusion of women weightlifters into the Olympic program.2 Olympic weightlifting is not a female athlete’s first choice; it was certainly not my first. I am an immigrant, born into a traditional Mexican home; a home where strict and clearly defined gender roles were established. I did not immigrate to the United States until I was eight years old; I did not grow up playing in youth sports leagues or enjoy the customary orange slices and juice boxes at half time or after the game. When I 2 reached junior high school, after years of incessantly begging my mother, I first took part in an organized sport: softball. Sport, from her unique cultural perspective, was not important. She dismissed sports as both being dangerous and un-lady-like. I continued to participate in sport throughout my high school career—I played softball, tennis and soccer and pursued softball at the club level. Needless to say, my passion for sport had developed and continued well into my early years at Orange Coast Community College. After graduating junior college, I sought opportunities to continue playing sports. I craved the rush of competition, the feeling of belonging to a team, and the struggle of day-to-day practices. Fortunately, I discovered CrossFit. The CrossFit program consists of a variety of gymnastic-style exercises and it revolves around the Olympic weightlifting movements, the snatch and the clean and jerk. CrossFit created a platform where I could build friendships and fulfill my desire to belong to a team. However, an unexpected ankle injury kept me from exercising on a consistent basis. After struggling to figure out what types of exercises my body was capable of performing, my sister suggested I join the California State University, Fullerton weightlifting club, that both she and fellow kinesiology students had recently established. Due to my lack of mobility, my routines initially consisted of minimal squatting and exercises focused strictly on upper-body resistance. However, as time progressed I learned to perfect the technique of the Olympic weightlifting movements. Through my association with this club and the persistence of my sister, I instantly fell in love with the sport of weightlifting. The following year I became the club’s Vice President. I helped organize meets and actively competed. My training intensified