Copyright Julia Lalande, 2006 “Building a Home Abroad” – A Comparative Study of Ukrainian Migration, Immigration Policy and Diaspora Formation in Canada and Germany after the Second World War. Dissertation zur Erlangung der Würde des Doktors der Philosophie des Fachbereichs Philosophie und Geschichtswissenschaft der Universität Hamburg vorgelegt von Julia Lalande aus Düsseldorf Toronto, den 26.01.2006 Hauptgutachter: Prof. Dr. Frank Golczewski Nebengutachter: Prof. Dr. Orest Subtelny Datum der Disputation: 29 März 2006 Table of Contents Pages Chapter Outline I-VI Preface VII Abbreviations VIII-X Acknowledgements XI-XII Deutsche Zusammenfassung XIII-XXX Chapter Outline Chapter 1: Introduction – Historiography and Theoretical Approach to the Topic 1-33 1. The Comparative Approach in the Context of Historiography 2-9 2. Studying Immigration History 9-13 3. Diaspora, Immigrant, Refugee, and Ethnic Group – Defining the Terminology 13-19 4. Methodology, Source Base, and Chapter Summary 19-23 4.1. Methodology 19-20 4.2. Source Base 20-21 4.3. Chapter Summary 21-23 5. The Background of Ukrainian Migration 23-33 5.1. Historical Synopsis of Ukrainian Migration to Canada 23-28 5.2. Ukrainian Migration to Germany 28-31 5.3. The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists 31-33 Chapter 2: Ukrainians in the Displaced Persons Camps, 1945-1948 34-94 1. Introduction 34-38 1.1. Secondary Literature and Primary Sources 34-36 1.2. Method and Outline 37-38 2. UNRRA and the Initial Relief Efforts in Germany 38-46 2.1. The Formation of UNRRA 38-40 2.2. The Early DP Operations and Problems 41-46 3. Repatriation 46-62 3.1. The Initial Stage of Repatriation 46-47 I 3.2. Repatriation as one of the Primary Goals 48 3.3. Resistance to Repatriation and International Reactions 48-55 3.4. UNRRA and Forced Repatriation 55-59 3.5. Pressure and Incentives as Means to Spur Repatriation 59-61 3.6. From Repatriation to ‘Maintenance’ 61-62 4. Community Life 62-89 4.1. Camps Evolve into Communities 63-66 4.2. Children in the Camps and the Question of Educating the Youth 66-72 4.3. Work Opportunities for Displaced Persons 72-74 4.4. Cultural Activities of Ukrainians 74-79 4.5. The Political Party Spectrum and Attempts of Consolidation 79-81 4.6. Political Rivalry in the Context of Self-Administration 81-85 4.7. Ukrainians as a Politicized group 85-89 5. From UNRRA to IRO – the Final Acknowledgment of Ukrainians 89-90 6. Conclusion 91-94 Chapter 3: Ukrainians in Canada during the Second World War 95-135 1. Introduction 95-101 1.1. Secondary Literature 96-99 1.2. Source Base, Approach and Major Questions 100-101 2. Canada and the Initial Years of War 101-113 2.1. Internment and Restriction – the Situation for the Communists 103-105 2.2. The Nationalist Faction during the Early War Years 105-108 2.3. The Formation of the UCC 108-113 3. Times of Crisis, 1941-1945 113-128 3.1. Consequences for the Communists 113-115 3.2. The Ukrainian Nationalist Community 115-123 3.2.1. Joint Canadian and American Ukrainian efforts 117-118 3.2.2. Lobbying for an Independent Ukraine 118-121 3.2.3. Claims of Representation 121-123 3.3. Reactions to Ukrainian Claims 123-128 4. An Overview of Actions and Views of the Canadian Government 128-133 5. Conclusion 133-135 II Chapter 4: Preparing for the Arrival of the Displaced Persons in Canada, 1945-1947 136-165 1. Introduction 136-138 2. The Canadian Government and the DP Problem 139-140 3. The Ukrainian-Canadian Community and the Issue of Immigration 141-158 3.1. General Lobbying for Recognition and Protection 141-142 3.2. Demanding Emigration to Canada 143-144 3.3. The Case of Specialists in the Camps 144-145 3.4. Portrayal of Displaced Persons 145-148 3.5. The Case of the Galician Division 149-151 3.6. Lobbying Efforts and the Question of Success 151-155 3.7. Ukrainian Relief Efforts in Germany and Austria 155-158 4. Immigration Schemes – Getting Them Over 158-164 5. Conclusion 164-165 Chapter 5: The Settlement Process of the Third Wave and Community Development during the 1950s 166-220 1. Introduction 166-169 2. Settlement Process and Integration Approach 169-182 2.1. Working as Contract Laborers 169-171 2.2. Striving for a Better Life – the Shift from Laborers to Professionals 172-173 2.3. The Rural-Urban Shift – Ukrainian Settlements in the Postwar Period 173-175 2.4. Initial Contact with Canada 175-182 3. Contact between the Third Wave and the Established Community 183-195 3.1. Clashes within the Nationalist Community 184-191 3.2. Clashes between DPs and Communists 191-195 4. Community Development during the 1950s (1951-1959) 196-218 4.1. “Fighting the Soviet Union” 196-209 4.1.1. “Spreading the Truth” about the Soviet Union 197-200 4.1.2. Commemoration of Important People and Historical Events 200-203 4.1.3. Anti-Soviet Demonstrations 203-205 4.1.4. General Preservation of Heritage 205-209 4.2. The Third Wave and the Ukrainian Canadian Committee 209-213 III 4.3. Ukrainians and the Wider Canadian Context 213-218 5. Conclusion 218-220 Chapter 6: The 1960s in Canada – the Decade of the Multiculturalism Discussion 221-273 1. Introduction 221-227 1.1. Terminology 222-224 1.2. Secondary Literature and Source Base 224-225 1.3. Approach 226-227 2. The Context of the 1960s 227-236 2.1. The 1960s in Canada and the Creation of the Royal Commission on 227-229 Bilingualism and Biculturalism 2.2. The Ukrainian Community during the 1960s 229-236 3. The Language and Symbolism of the Discussion 236-244 3.1. Definitions of the Terminology of the Multiculturalism Discussion 236-238 3.2. The Symbolism of the Multiculturalism Discussion 238-244 4. The Ukrainian Position in the Discussion 244-261 4.1. Demands for Participation, Recognition, and Equality 248-251 4.2. The Pioneering Argument 251-257 4.3. The Importance of the Situation in the Homeland 257-259 4.4. Parallels to the French Canadians 259-260 4.5. Arguments against a Special Status 260-261 5. The Introduction of the Multiculturalism Policy 261-267 5.1. 1971 – a Crucial Year for Ukrainians in Canada 261-264 5.2. The Implementation of the Multiculturalism Policy 265-267 6. Conclusion and Outlook 267-273 6.1. Conclusion 267-269 6. 2. Outlook 269-273 Chapter 7: The 1950s in Germany – the Slow Transition Process 274-344 1. Introduction 274-282 1.1. Secondary Literature and Source Base 275-280 1.2 Terminology and Outline 280-282 2. The ‘Official’ Transition into the German Economy and Society 282-288 IV 2.1. The Homeless Foreigners Act 283-286 2.2. The Change in Terminology through the Homeless Foreigners Act 286-288 3. The ‘Unofficial’ Transition into the German Economy and Society 288-316 3.1. The Persistence of Camp Life 288-292 3.2. Abolishing the Camps 292-297 3.3. The Wish to Emigrate or “Life in the Waiting Room” 297-300 3.4. Communist Activities and Propaganda among Homeless Foreigners 301-303 3.5. German Attitudes toward Homeless Foreigners 303-307 3.6. Emigration Fails as a Solution 307-310 3.7. (Community) Life in the Settlements 310-316 3.7.1. The Settlement Munich-Ludwigsfeld 311-314 3.7.2. The Difficulty of Instigating Community Activities 314-316 4. Support for the Homeless Foreigners 316-331 4.1. General Support and Integration Measures by the German Government 316-321 4.2. The Context of German Expellees 321-324 4.3. Pressure from the International Community and German Reactions 324-327 4.4. The German Authorities, Ukrainians, and Support from the Wider Diaspora 327-331 5. Specifics of the Ukrainian Community in Germany 331-342 5.1. The Orientation of Ukrainians in Germany towards the Broader Diaspora 331-335 5.2. Theoretical and Actual Goals of the Shrinking Community 335-338 5.3. “Our Children are Our Future” 338-342 6. Conclusion 342-344 Chapter 8: The 1960s in Germany – A Time of Trouble and Reconciliation 345-400 1. Secondary Literature, Source Base, and General Approach 345-347 2. Ukrainians in Germany – a Political Group 347-367 2.1. Bandera’s Murder and the Stashynskyi Trial 347-352 2.2. Ukrainians as Political Refugees 353-362 2.2.1. Germany as a ‘Hotbed’ of Eastern European Political Activities 354-357 2.2.2. Ukrainian Political Activity in Germany 357-361 2.2.3. German Reactions to Political Activity 361-362 2.3. The Precarious Status of Homeless Foreigners in Germany 362-367 3. Ukrainian Community Life in Germany 367-377 3.1. The Promise of the 1960s – Temporary Recovery of the Community 367-371 V 3.2. “The Community Dies Out” – the Reality of the 1960s 371-375 3.3. Explanations for the State of Ukrainian Affairs in Germany 375-377 4. The Academic Institutions and the Issue of German Sponsorship 377-397 4.1. The Academic Sphere and the Formation of the AAUS 378-383 4.1.1. The Ukrainian Free University (UFU) 378-380 4.1.2. The Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute (UTHI) 380-381 4.1.3. The Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh), German Branch 381-382 4.1.4. The Association for the Advancement of Ukrainian Studies (AAUS) 382-383 4.2. Motivation for Support Ukrainian Academic and Other Institutions 383-386 4.3. Support for Ukrainian Institutions in the Context of Eastern Studies 386-388 4.4.