regulations impose guidelines to maintain aesthetic property values, which often influence homeowners’ needs to maintain lawns (Jenkins, 1994). However, arguably the most influential is the social pressure from neighbors who often ensure enforce- ment of lawn regulations, to which homeowners often conform (Byrne, Reviews 2005). There are an estimated 40 million acres of nonnative grass lawns in the United States, covering almost 2% of land, making it the largest irrigated monoculture plant system in the coun- try (Milesi et al., 2005; Tallamy, A Review of Organic Lawn Care Practices and 2007). Lawns are often high-input systems, requiring significant amounts Policies in North America and the Implications of time, monetary, and chemical in- vestments to maintain aesthetic prop- of Lawn Plant Diversity and Insect Pest erty value (Robbins et al., 2001). The prevalence of turf cover throughout Management the United States and a low tolerance for weed and insect pests coincides Sam Marshall1,4, David Orr1, Lucy Bradley2, with an increase in the use of synthetic chemicals (Alumai et al., 2008). Con- and Christopher Moorman3 ventional lawn management strategies are calendar-based applications of syn- thetic chemical inputs of fertilizers, ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. turfgrass, landscape herbicides, and insecticides (Alumai SUMMARY. There are 40 million acres of turfgrass lawns throughout the United et al., 2008; Bormann et al., 1993) States, most of which are managed under chemical-intensive pest and fertilizer and have been associated with environ- programs. ‘‘Organic lawn care’’ is being adopted more widely; however, unlike the mental pollution and human health formally defined policies and regulations that govern organic agriculture, the label risks [Robbins and Sharp, 2003a; organic lawn management has not been formally defined and is used to describe U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), a variety of practices. Neighborhoods, cities, states, and provinces across North 1999]. As a result, strategies using America are adopting policies regulating the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the landscape. In addition, a small but growing number of public institutions and integrated pest management (IPM) individual consumers are successfully adopting alternative lawn care methods, or ‘‘organic’’ practices have garnered including organic lawn care. Although perceived as environmentally friendly, the increased attention as management effects of organic management on insect diversity and pest management remain alternatives (Alumai et al., 2008). understudied. Organic lawn management may lead to increased lawn plant di- Some individual consumers and versity, which in agroecosystems has enhanced ecological services provided by public institutions have adopted alter- beneficial insect species. Effects of vegetative diversity on lawn pest management are native lawn management strategies, less clear. Vegetative complexity and increased plant diversity in urban landscapes which have been promoted as a way may enhance insect predator efficacy. The diversity of predatory insects varies to prevent potential negative environ- between turfgrass varieties in response to prey populations. Mortality of insectiv- mental consequences of the overuse or orous and granivorous ground beetles (Carabidae) while not directly impacted by pest management programs in turfgrass may be indirectly impacted by a reduction misuse of pesticides (Henderson et al., in the prevalence of plant species that provide alternative food resources. Previous 1998). The growing interest in lawn studies have focused on herbivorous insects as well as predatory and parasitic insects management alternatives has led to that feed on them. Future studies should assess how lawn plant diversity resulting changes in public policies which ban from organic management practices might impact insect communities in turfgrass. the use of cosmetic pesticide applica- tions and favor the adoption of lawn s a result of the economic suburban) area in the United States alternatives (Vickers, 2006), including boom in the mid-20th century, increased by 12% each year (U.S. organically managed green spaces Athe middle-class changed its Census Bureau, 2012). In 2012, over (Alumai et al., 2008). way of life, increasing urban sprawl 80% of the U.S. population lived in Although organic management due to movement away from city urban areas (U.S. Census Bureau, programs are offered as an alternative centers (Robbins and Sharp, 2003a). 2012). Construction of homes and to traditional lawn care, their impact From the mid-1950s to 1986, almost buildings often leads to a loss of on arthropod diversity and pest man- 69 million acres of natural habitat was natural vegetation (Blubaugh et al., agement is poorly understood. A goal converted to urban or suburban areas 2011), which is often replaced with of commercial IPM or organic man- (Grey and Deneke, 1986). From turfgrass systems (Tallamy, 2007). agement is to enhance the overall 2000 to 2010, urban (urban + Public policies and local housing aesthetic quality of lawns, which • August 2015 25(4) 437 REVIEWS includes suppression of pests that in- inspection to ensure USDA regulations general public (Pralle, 2006a). In vade turf (Alumai et al., 2008). Since are still being met. 1992, Spraytech (Calgary, AB) and little is known about the effects of Except for cases where turf is Chemlawn (Memphis, TN) filed suit organic lawn management on arthro- grown commercially for sod or seed against Hudson, QC, claiming that pod communities, this article reviews production, lawns are not agricul- municipalities did not have the right literature pertinent to organic lawn tural commodities and so their man- to impose bans on chemicals which care, highlighting studies that have agement is not regulated other than hadbeenapprovedforusebyna- assessed the effects of turf variety by local municipal and homeowner tional and provincial governments and management practices on insect association aesthetic rules. Because (Pralle, 2006a). The two companies communities. To put this informa- there has been no groundswell of brought the case to Quebec’s Supe- tion into context, the article begins support for consistent definitions of rior Court, where the decision of with an assessment of what organic organic lawn management and accom- Hudson to ban nonessential applica- lawn management means and the panying regulations like for agricultural tions of pesticides was upheld (Pralle, history of public policy regard- commodities, there is no national 2006a). Eventually, the case went to ing its implementation in North definition or regulation of organic the Canadian Supreme Court, and in America. lawn care. This article refers to or- 2001 it upheld Hudson’s right to ganic lawn management with the ban nonessential use of chemicals understanding that there are many (Pralle, 2006a). It also extended its Defining Organic Lawn varying definitions. decision, and included the right of Management all local municipalities through- The U.S. Department of Agricul- Relevant Public Policy in North out Canada to adopt bylaws that ture (USDA) defines organic agricul- America banned cosmetic chemical applica- ture as ‘‘. an ecological production tions in public and privately owned management system that promotes and Grassroots organizations through- green spaces (Pralle, 2006a). By enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, out North America are pushing institu- 2005, there were 70 municipal by- and soil biological activity. It is based tions as well as local and regional laws which banned the nonessential on minimal use of off-farm inputs and governments to restrict the use of use of pesticides in Canada (Pralle, on management practices that restore, pesticides and adopt organic or sim- 2006a). maintain, and enhance ecological har- ilar management policies for public In 2003, the Canadian province mony’’ (USDA, 1995). The USDA spaces. These changes are being of Quebec adopted a pesticides man- National Organic Program (NOP) ad- made primarily because of perceived agement code in an attempt to miti- ministers and publishes organic regula- public health concerns, even though gate deleterious effects from the tions with input from the public and the consequences of these policies overuse of pesticides in publicly man- the National Organic Standards Board. may not yet be fully understood aged green spaces. The code was re- Before being certified as organic, farms (e.g., labor requirements, pest man- vised several years later, and in 2006 must undergo a 3-year transition pe- agement). The following section re- extended its guidelines to include riod in which organic production prac- views these policy changes to put the commercial as well as privately man- tices are followed, and documentation discussion of organic lawn manage- aged lawns in urban areas (Province of must be provided that no unapproved ment into context. Quebec, 2012). Guidelines of the products or practices were used in the code mandate that all applicators, production system. Producers must Public Policies in Canada whether for commercial or private then submit an application and fees to In 1991, the Montreal suburb of (residential) use, file for an applica- a USDA-accredited certifying agent Hudson, QC was the first municipal- tion permit stating just cause and (state departments of agriculture or ity to adopt a bylaw prohibiting the purpose for application of pesticides private organizations). After an on-site nonessential use of pesticide applica- (Province of Quebec, 2012).