ASp la revue du GERAS 72 | 2017 Normes et usages en anglais de spécialité An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past participle-based compound adjectives in ESP Évaluation des récentes avancées de la traduction automatique : le cas des adjectifs composés formés à partir d'un participe passé en anglais de spécialité François Maniez Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/asp/5059 DOI: 10.4000/asp.5059 ISSN: 2108-6354 Publisher Groupe d'étude et de recherche en anglais de spécialité Printed version Date of publication: 1 November 2017 Number of pages: 29-48 ISSN: 1246-8185 Electronic reference François Maniez, « An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past participle-based compound adjectives in ESP », ASp [Online], 72 | 2017, Online since 01 November 2018, connection on 01 November 2020. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/asp/5059 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/asp.5059 This text was automatically generated on 1 November 2020. Tous droits réservés An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past... 1 An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past participle-based compound adjectives in ESP Évaluation des récentes avancées de la traduction automatique : le cas des adjectifs composés formés à partir d'un participe passé en anglais de spécialité François Maniez 1. Introduction 1 While the problems posed by the translation of denominal adjectives from French into English and vice-versa are well documented (Maniez 2009), the translation into Romance languages of compound adjectives consisting of a past participle preceded by a noun phrase (e.g. decay-corrected, receptor-mediated or technetium-99m-labeled) has received little attention so far, in spite of the very thorough treatment of participial compound pre-modifiers (henceforth PCPs) by Mestivier (2015). As stressed by Maniez and Thoiron (2004), such compound adjectives are more frequently used in scientific English than in general language and very often present a challenge when translating into Romance languages, where the equivalent of head modification in a noun phrase cannot be expressed with the same economy as that afforded by the ‘cognitive packing’ that such PCPs allow (Gledhill & Pecman 2015). As pointed out by Biber (1988: 105), PCPs, insofar as they “pack information into fewer words and structures” than predicative adjectives or relative clauses, are “a more integrated form of nominal elaboration” whose frequency has constantly increased in scientific writing in the past few decades. Figure 1, for instance, shows how the use of the PCP evidence- ASp, 72 | 2017 An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past... 2 based has markedly increased since the beginning of the 1990s in the Google Books corpus in relation to the occurrence of the phrase (is) based on evidence.1 Figure 1. Frequency of use of evidence-based and (is) based on evidence between 1980 and 2008 in the Google Books corpus 2 For translators from English into Romance languages, a major difficulty lies in the fact that some very frequently used adjectives of this type are absent from terminological databases (whose entries consist almost exclusively of nouns or complex noun phrases), as the productivity of English compounding mechanisms makes it impossible to record all existing forms. 2. Identification of the most productive past participle forms used in PCPs ending in -ed in the Corpus of Contemporary American English 3 We used a list of the 500 most frequently used compound adjectives ending in -ed in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (henceforth COCA) as a basis for our study (see Davies 2008, for an introduction to the design and use of this well-known 520- million-word corpus). We selected the 464 forms in that list which were used five times or more in the corpus. Table 1 shows the thirty most frequently used bigrams consisting of a PCP followed by a noun, with their respective frequencies. ASp, 72 | 2017 An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past... 3 Table 1. Most frequently used bigrams consisting of a PCP ending in -ed followed by a noun and their frequency in the COCA Corpus (ACAD:MED) 4 The regular expression used in our query (*-*ed) did not allow for the selection of specific syntactic patterns, since the components of compound adjectives are not individually part-of-speech-tagged (we should also add that while this regular expression may occasionally return a compound adjective formed with the past participle of an irregular verb -- such as grass-fed – it will fail to return those that are formed with most other irregular verbs). Consequently, a wide variety of word formation patterns was to be observed in our original list: while it seems possible to paraphrase the meaning of most adjectives by developing an underlying prepositional phrase attached to the head noun (community-based = based in the community, health- related = related to health) as remarked by Mestivier (op. cit.: 3), some of the items listed in Table 1 clearly do not fit that pattern. Here are some examples of forms that were originally returned by our query and the reason why they were discarded: • the first component of the compound adjective is a prefix or an adverb: pre-formatted, so- called, well-defined. • the compound adjective is not formed with a past participle, but by adding the -ed suffix to a whole complex noun phrase: left-sided, open-ended, middle-aged, able-bodied. 5 Since we assume that such forms are lexicalized and are generally assigned stable translation equivalents in Romance languages, we will consider them to be outside the scope of our study, and we will focus instead on compound adjectives that are formed with the past participle of a regular verb, whether they express an agentive relation (computer-aided = aided by a computer, physician-assisted = assisted by a physician) or any other relation that can be expressed through the use of a prepositional phrase. 6 Close examination of the data in Table 1 reveals that while some of the most frequent forms (such as sun-dried tomatoes or star-spangled banner) clearly belong to general ASp, 72 | 2017 An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past... 4 English (GE), the overwhelming majority are related to English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and more specifically to scientific English. On looking more specifically at the past participle forms involved, we also notice that many of the adjectives shown in Table 1 are formed with the same past participle (as many as ten are formed on based alone). Bearing that fact in mind, we identified the most productive past participles in the formation of such adjectives in the medical part (ACAD:MED) of the Academic sub- section of the COCA by computing their frequencies separately. Table 2. Twenty most productive past participles in the formation of PCPs in the medical part of the Academic sub-section of the COCA Corpus (ACAD:MED) Past X-Ved X-Ved participle types tokens based 383 2238 related 371 1694 induced 157 350 associated 104 259 oriented 68 140 treated 56 167 mediated 49 143 shaped 46 100 controlled 37 197 infected 33 169 adjusted 25 136 assisted 24 164 cent(e)red 23 204 weighted 21 172 linked 18 63 reported 16 416 tested 13 38 defined 11 79 directed 11 69 limited 10 56 ASp, 72 | 2017 An appraisal of recent breakthroughs in machine translation: the case of past... 5 Total 1476 6854 7 Table 2 shows the total number of distinct compound adjectives formed with the twenty most productive past participles and the aggregate frequency for all of those forms combined. The figures shown in the table confirm that a great number of the adjectives under study are formed with only a handful of past participle forms which are very productive. Indeed, the first four participles in the list (based, related, induced and associated) are used for more than two thirds of all types and tokens of such PCPs (based alone accounts for more than a quarter of all the types of those adjectives and almost a third of all the forms listed in the table). 3. Machine Translation and the translation of PCPs in scientific texts 8 Machine translation (henceforth MT) has made extraordinary progress in the past two decades. Early methods based on the use of dictionaries and parsing algorithms obtained fairly good results when applied to scientific texts for two reasons: 9 Their content generally presents fewer polysemous words than general language, leading to a lesser degree of semantic ambiguity. 10 Complex terms, which most often are present in the form of long noun phrases, represent an important part of such texts, and can easily be translated if their translations equivalents (TEs) are included in the machine-readable glossaries or translation memories that underlie such MT programs. 11 The type of progress accomplished by MT programs in the previous decade can be seen in example 1, which shows the translation of a sentence (quoted in Maniez, 2008) by the Systran software (version 6) in 2007 and a recent translation of the same sentence by the Google Translate MT program: (1) Management algorithms would be more useful than figures showing anecdotal responses to cholesterol-lowering medications or photographs of patients doing push-ups. Systran 6 (2007): Les algorithmes de gestion seraient plus utiles que des figures montrant des réponses anecdotiques aux traitements hypolipidémiants ou aux photographies des patients faisant des poussées. GT (08/2017): Les algorithmes de gestion seraient plus utiles que les chiffres montrant des réponses anecdotiques aux médicaments abaissant le cholestérol ou des photographies de patients faisant des flexions.