Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xl:4 (Spring, 2010), 551–578. TRADITIONAL BASQUE FISHING BROTHERHOODS Andreas Hess “Working the Waves”: The Plebeian Culture and Moral Economy of Traditional Basque Fishing Brotherhoods The Basque ªshing fraternity (cofradía de mareantes) is the institutional manifestation of a rich local plebeian culture and the moral economy that once grounded it. Its original raison d’être was to facilitate a collective voice for local ªshermen. Political and economic conditions, however, began to submerge this collective voice during the late nineteenth century, eventually muting it entirely within the twentieth century. A proper under- standing of the cofradía’s long history, as well as its demise at the hands of modernization, requires a familiarity with the concept of hidalguía, the notion that every Basque was a nobleman. In his groundbreaking study El ‘igualitarismo’ vasco: mito y realidad (Basque Egalitarianism: Myth and Reality), Otazu at- tempted to deconstruct the idea that since time immemorial, a no- tion of egalitarianism has prevailed in the Basque Country. Against the idea that every Basque was a hidalgo—a nobleman—Otazu shows that some people were not only more noble than others but also that the very idea of equal and widespread noble origin usually served those in the ascendancy, often helping the powerful to de- fend their privileged positions. Contrary to the idea that Basque society and culture were somehow free of class distinctions, and against nationalist tendencies to idealize a glorious past, Otazu de- scribes the many historical layers of class conºict that arose when a country embarked on the long transition from the Middle Ages to the era of modern capitalism.1 Otazu’s groundbreaking study led to a number of important investigations that related social inequality and class to moderniza- tion. Yet, notwithstanding its insight that the stratiªcation of Basque society was not just imposed by the outside world (in this case, Castile or the Spanish state), two speciªc points were obliter- Andreas Hess is Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Sociology, University College Dublin. He is the au- thor of Reluctant Modernization (Oxford, 2009); editor of, with Christian Fleck and E. Stina Lyon, Intellectuals and Their Publics—Perspectives from the Social Sciences (Burlington, Vt., 2009). © 2010 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Inc. 1 Alfonso de Otazu, El ‘igualitarismo’ vasco: mito y realidad (San Sebastián, 1986). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jinh.2010.40.4.551 by guest on 28 September 2021 552 | ANDREAS HESS ated. First, Otazu and those historians and social scientists who ac- cepted the logic of his argument looked only at the objective di- mensions and the historically veriªable data and circumstances that supported their claim; the collective-subjective and moral dimen- sions of past and present conºicts disappeared. Second, attention to peculiar Basque motives and occurrences, such as the obvious appeal to the common good and the prevailing egalitarian and subjective sense of justice, drifted, at best, into the background. In a new study, El espíritu emprendedor de los vascos (The Entre- preneurial Spirit of the Basques), which in many ways extends the argument ªrst presented in El ‘igualitarismo’ vasco, Otazu and his co-author take the argument about the instrumental aspect of ideological egalitarianism a step further, laying the foundations for the proper “export” of the (male) Basque surplus population to the Kingdom of Castile and the Castilian colonial empire to be- come “spiritual” entrepreneurs in an almost Weberian sense. They show these Basque entrepreneurs replacing the old supply struc- ture of the elite, consisting mainly of Jews and/or conversos. What remains problematical, however, is the view of a “trickle- down” effect of this new Basque egalitarian ideology. Not by chance is the subject hero of the new study the emprendedor (the entrepreneur)—almost never the Basque shepherd, peasant, arti- san, or ªsherman, all of whom are at the receiving end of the modernization effort. In this “top-down” history (maybe against the intent of the authors), Otazu and Durana rely heavily on sources that stem mostly from those who had the privileges of writing and power. The subaltern classes rarely expressed them- selves in any formal way. The Basque emprendedors, however, the pro-active modernizers, must have also produced a counter- weight to the documented view, expressing the reluctance of the subaltern classes to be only pawns in the modernizing effort.2 Although the two studies mentioned above have unearthed a wealth of historical, anthropological, and sociological material, they remain incomplete. A different conceptual framework, how- ever, produces other readings and leads to new insights, and a dif- ferent emphasis helps to contextualize the rich empirical ªndings and lend a new interpretation to them. The conceptual approach of Edward P. Thompson and the insights of other social scientists, 2 Otazu and José Ramón Díaz de Durana, El espíritu emprendedor de los vascos (Madrid, 2008). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jinh.2010.40.4.551 by guest on 28 September 2021 TRADITIONAL BASQUE FISHING BROTHERHOODS | 553 such as Albert O. Hirschman, are of primary relevance in this re- spect. Thompson’s work on plebeian culture and moral economy offers an insight into why and how the egalitarianism ethos emerged, showing that it was not just handed down from the elite and simply accepted. A Thompsonian perspective further expli- cates the persistence of this ethos, as well is its eventual demise. Such an approach can examine social and economic conºict with- out subordinating local, regional, and even national contexts to ruling-class behavior or treating them as the mere “consolidation processes” of new ascending classes striving for elevated and dis- tinguished positions. It can take a deeper look into what have been called “Basque peculiarities” or “singularities” without stereotyp- ing, reducing, or conªning them to a purely nationalist discourse. In his writings on late eighteenth-century England, Thomp- son suggested that plebeian culture and moral economy were in- trinsically linked—plebeian culture being one of his auxiliary terms to describe a situation in which class deviated from strict Marxist assumptions. Thompson proposed a conceptual framework that placed less emphasis on the objective notions of class and class consciousness in favor of the subjective-collective contributions that the “crowd” or the “plebs” made to culture and customs. Thompson preferred to see the older prototypes or forerunners of the English working class as heterogeneous constellations consist- ing of many dimensions and layers in which traditional popular customs played a major role. These customs tended to sustain a moral economy that could assume various meanings—common rights, norms or obligations, and day-to-day habits or practices— but that, taken together, could constitute a force that was alien or opposed to the powers that be.3 Thompson was not the only scholar to write about plebeian culture and moral economy; Smith did so much earlier. More- over, in The Passions and the Interests (1977), Hirschman demon- strated that early political economy was motivated by a strong moral impetus. In other studies, he ªne-tuned his general ap- proach by inventing a number of closely related concepts that refer to the micro-links between political economy, customs, and mor- als. If applied to the Basque context, and to Thompson’s larger 3 Edward P. Thompson, Plebeische Kultur und moralische Ökonomie (Frankfurt, 1980); idem, Customs in Common (London 1991). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jinh.2010.40.4.551 by guest on 28 September 2021 554 | ANDREAS HESS notion of plebeian economy and moral economy, Hirschman’s approach could provide, if not precisely a history from below, at least a window into the other side of the modernization process, which so far has remained a conceptual black box for historians, sociologists, and anthropologists of the Basque Country.4 the long history of the cofradía The peculiar shape of the Cantabrian coast offers only a few easily accessible opportunities for embarkation. Hence, the ªrst efforts to build and fortify land- ing places were focused on areas where navigable rivers ended in the sea and provided natural access. From east to west, these villas ribereñas were Fuentarrabía, Orio, Deba, Lekeitio, Gernika/ Mundaka, and the settlements at the mouth of the river Nervión. Starting in the eleventh and stretching into the twelfth century, anchorage and simple launch facilities developed into proper ports, encouraged by a parallel take-off phase of two types of ac- tivity, whaling and coastal ªshing (pesca litoral or pesca de bajura). By the fourteenth century, coastal ªshing had developed to such an extent that Basque ªshermen were encouraged to try their luck further aªeld, in what would become known as pesca de altura (high sea ªshing).5 In the sixteenth century, coastal ªshing continued to be prac- ticed, but coastal whale hunting had almost completely disap- peared. Whale hunting continued, together with cod ªshing, only along the coast of Newfoundland. At the end of the sixteenth cen- tury, the Spanish Armada and its campaigns began to place a heavy demand on both the ªnancial and the human resources of the ports. Despite these and other constraints, like changing patterns of ªsh migration and breeding grounds, regular ªshing expeditions continued, covering the entire area of the North Atlantic and re- turning enough proªt to cope.6 4 Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, Mass., 1970); idem, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before its Triumph (Princeton, 1977); idem, Entwicklung, Markt und Moral (München,1989); Hess, “The ‘Economy Of Morals’ and Its Applications—an Attempt to Un- derstand Some Central Concepts in the Work of Albert O.