Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare orn in England in 1564, William Shake- speare wrote Julius Caesar in 1599. The THE LITERARY WORK Bplay follows events that actually took place A play set in ancient Rome, about 45 B.C.; first in ancient Rome in the first century B.C., but also performed in 1599. reflects to some degree the realities of English life in the late sixteenth century, during what is SYNOPSIS known as the Elizabethan era. Julius Caesar is assassinated by a conspiracy of senators, a murder that has important Events in History at the Time the Play consequences. Takes Place The Roman Senate. All the central characters of served during alternate months for about one Julius Caesar—Caesar, Mark Antony, the con- year. A consulship was the supreme honor avail- spirators—are members of the senate, Rome's able to a Roman citizen. Consuls summoned and main governing body. The senate controlled both presided over the senate, conducted the main domestic and foreign policy, publishing decrees, elections, and commanded armies during war- arresting and convicting citizens, levying fines, time. Though they wielded great influence, their and convening public assemblies. Senate mem- power was checked by the presence of the sec- bers generally worked hard; their meetings ond consul with whom they served and the short started very early in the day and often continued duration of their term in office. until dark. Though its size varied over the years, the Roman Senate had about 600 members dur- The rise of Julius Caesar. In 60 B.C., about fif- ing the time covered in Julius Caesar. Any adult teen years before the events depicted in Julius male citizen automatically became a senator af- Caesar took place, Caesar, Gneius Pompeius ter serving as a junior government official. In (Pompey), and Marcus Licinius Crassus were practice, the body was dominated by Rome's aris- three of the most powerful senators in Rome. tocrats, who were called patricians. This domi- They decided to form a pact to support each nance of the senate by rich citizens was due in other politically. This pact, which became known part to the low salaries pulled in at even high- as the First Triumvirate, allowed each to support level government posts; one had to be wealthy the others in accomplishing their respective po- to be able to afford to take such a position. litical goals. Armed with such power, the three The principal officials of the senate, and of allied senators were able to get laws passed more Rome, were two consuls. Selected from among easily than they had been able to do individu- the senators by the general population, they each ally. The alliance served each of the senators well LITERATURE AND ITS TIMES VOLUME 1 189 for a number of years. In 53 B.C., however, Cras- followed as well. A religious temple—where fes- I Julius sus was killed in a war and the alliance between tivals in his honor would be celebrated annu- I Caesar Caesar and Pompey gradually began to disinte- ally—was to be built in memory of the peace grate. Caesar tried to salvage the relationship. He Caesar had restored. An ivory statue of his like- offered to divorce his wife, Calpurnia, and marry ness was to be carried with those of the gods in Pompey's daughter, Pompeia. At the same time, processions. His birthday was made a public hol- Pompey would marry Caesar's great-niece Oc- iday and the month Quinctilis renamed as July tavia. Such intermarriage between families was a in his honor. On February 15, 44 B.C., he as- common way of solidifying political bonds. Pom- sumed the title dictator perpetuus: "dictator for pey refused the proposal, however, and married life." Previously, dictators had only been ap- the daughter of one of Caesar's enemies, a cer- pointed to serve temporarily to deal with state tain sign of hostility. Before long, violence and emergencies. As dictator perpetuus, however, civil war broke out between supporters of Cae- Julius Caesar was assured that he would be sar and supporters of Pompey. In 49 B.C., Cae- the most powerful man in Rome for the rest of sar's army forced Pompey and his followers out his life. of Italy. Battles continued between the two for a What Caesar was really like. Though not de- number of years in such places as Greece, Egypt, scribed as a particularly likable man, Caesar had and Africa. Caesar finally emerged victorious in such skill in politics, generalship, public speak- 45 B.C. at the battle of Munda, Spain. ing, and writing that he has been called a genius. So generous was he to the enemies he had de- feated (if they were Roman) that he forgave some without doling out punishment. Sometimes he ROMAN NAMES even gave them posts in his own government. Two such former foes were Cassius and Brutus. Both would later turn against Caesar. Caesar's patrician or aristocratic families had three names— pained cry, "Et tu, Brute?" (And you, Brutus?) M praenomen, nornen, and cognomen. For example, Cae- became famous; it is often used today by those sar's full name was Gaius Julius Caesar The no/ne/T—Julius- who wish to convey feelings of betrayal. indicated the person's clan. The cognomen—Caesar—speci- How well did Caesar rule? As dictator, Julius fied the family branch of the clan. This was the name that a Caesar proved generous in granting Roman citi- person was normally called by colleagues. The praenomen— zenship to foreigners. He also had the cities of Corinth and Carthage rebuilt for his discharged Caius—was only used by relatives or close friends. Women of soldiers and for the workers of Rome. He further the period legally had no name* They were called by the fem- increased the size of the senate and made it bet- inine form of the nomen, their clan name. Thus, Caesar's ter represent all of Rome. But Caesar also had an daughter was called JuHa, If a family had more than one daugh- air of haughtiness that apparently contributed to ter, affectionate personal names could be used within the fam- his downfall. He, for example, disregarded pub- ily to avoid confusion. lic opinion when, in 46 B.C., he welcomed the Egyptian ruler Cleopatra to Rome. Along with other ill-considered acts, such disdain for public sentiment was one factor that prompted old Caesar's popularity grew tremendously dur- friends to turn against him. ing the civil war. In 46 B.C. the senate appointed While Caesar had the support of the senate, him to be "dictator" for ten years. This new sta- some members were not happy about his rise to tus as Rome's supreme leader made him much dictatorship. They chafed under a political ar- more powerful than a consul. Upon his tri- rangement that greatly diminished their influ- umphant return to Rome in 45 B.C., the senate ence. In addition, Rome's republican tradition voted him a great number of honors. He was seemed to be in tremendous jeopardy. Prior to awarded the title pater patriae (father of the coun- Caesar's ascendancy, even the most influential try). His statue was placed in all the temples of Romans had checks on their powers in the form Rome and the towns of Italy. He was also allowed of popular elections and term limits for consuls. to use several significant emblems of power on No single person had ever before wielded so all occasions. These symbols included a ward- much power. So, as reenacted in Shakespeare's robe of a purple triumphal toga and a laurel play, a conspiracy that included about sixty sen- wreath and use of a gilded chair. Other honors ators formed. Led by Gaius Cassius Longinus 190 LITERATURE AND ITS TIMES VOLUME 1 Julius Caesar (Cassius) and Marcus Junius Brutus (Brutus), the offering of sacred cakes. The priests smeared conspirators assassinated Caesar on March 15, blood on the foreheads of two young men from 44 B.C. noble families. Afterwards the blood was wiped off with wool dipped in milk and the young men Roman religious holidays. The Romans be- laughed in accordance with the rules of the rit- lieved in a pantheon of gods, each linked to a ual. A feast followed. Next the priests cut up the particular human activity. For example, there sacrificial goat skins into strips. Naked except for were gods of war (Mars), home life (Vesta), and the skins, the priests ran from Lupercal, travel- agriculture (Ceres). Every activity was performed ing several times around the Palatine hill. Along under the authority of a particular god. Before the way they struck bystanders—especially wom- beginning any significant action, people custom- en who wanted to be cured of barrenness—with arily performed a ritual or made a sacrifice in thongs. Mark Antony is portrayed in Julius Cae- honor of the appropriate god. The Roman cal- sar as one of the Lupercal runners. Caesar alludes endar also consisted of a large mixture of regu- to this when he tells him: lar daily, monthly, and yearly religious rituals cel- ebrating the cult of a particular god or gods. Forget not in your speed... Some of these holidays, such as the Ides of March To touch Calpurnia, for our elders say and the Feast of Lupercal, are mentioned in Julius The barren, touched in this holy chase, Caesar. Shake off their sterile curse. (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, 1.2.6-8) The Feast of Lupercal was a major public event that took place yearly on February 15.