TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE vii THESIS REQUIREMENTS DECLARATION viii DECLARATION ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x DEDICATION xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 BACKGROUND 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH / PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 4 1.2.1 Research questions 4 1.2.2 Research process 5 1.3 FOCUS OF RESEARCH 6 1.3.1 Grounded theory analysis 6 1.3.2 Qualitative research 6 1.4 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY 7 1.4.1 Epistemology 7 1.4.2 Ontology 7 1.4.3 Constructivism 8 1.4.4 Post-Modernism 8 1.4.5 The transformation debate 10 1.5 RATIONALE AND MOTIVATION 13 1.6 RESEARCH STRATEGY 15 1.6.1 Field research 15 1.6.2 Key analytic strategy 15 1.6.3 Participant observation 16 1.6.4 Unstructured interviews 16 1.6.5 Case studies 17 1.6.6 Triangulation 17 i 1.6.7 Purposive sampling 17 1.6.8 Data gathering and data analysis 18 1.6.9 Value of the research and potential outcomes 18 1.6.10 The researcher's background 19 1.6.11 Chapter layout 19 CHAPTER 2: CREATING CONTEXT: SPORT AND DEMOCRACY 21 2.1 INTRODUCTION 21 2.2 SPORT 21 2.2.1 Conceptual clarification 21 2.2.2 Background and historical perspective 26 2.2.2.1 Sport in ancient Rome 28 2.2.2.2 Sport and the English monarchy 28 2.2.2.3 Sport as an instrument of politics 29 2.2.3 Different viewpoints 30 2.2.4 Politics 32 2.2.5 A critical overview of the relationship between sport and politics 33 2.2.5.1 Democracy 35 (a) Defining democracy 35 (b) The confusing nature of democracy 38 (c) Reflection on democracy 39 2.3 CONCLUSION 40 CHAPTER 3: SPORT IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT 42 3.1 INTRODUCTION 42 3.2 A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF SPORT 43 3.2.1 The Olympic Games 45 3.2.2 Sport in the Ancient World 47 3.2.3 The sports of Medieval and Early Modern Europe 48 3.2.4 The initial development of modern sport 49 3.3 SPORT IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT 50 3.3.1 Athletics 50 3.3.2 Football/Soccer 52 3.3.3 Cricket 55 3.3.4 Boxing 57 3.3.5 Table Tennis 59 3.3.6 Rugby 61 ii 3.3.7 Netball 62 3.3.8 Basketball 63 3.3.9 Golf 64 3.3.10 Hockey 65 3.4 SOUTH AFRICAN SPORTING HISTORY 67 3.5 CHRONOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICAN SPORT 72 3.6 CRITICAL EVALUATION 77 CHAPTER 4: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN RUGBY 79 4.1 INTRODUCTION 79 4.2 THE IMPERIAL CONNECTIONS 81 4.3 AFRIKANER NATIONALISM 86 4.4 THE APARTHEID-ERA IN SPORT 91 4.5 THE EMERGENCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF BLACK RUGBY 93 4.5.1 Background 93 4.5.2 Rugby in African communities 94 4.5.3 The political transformation of African rugby 97 4.5.4 The development of Coloured rugby 100 4.5.5 Growth and setbacks within SACRFB 107 4.5.6 The Springboks internal tour 109 4.5.7 Interracial test matches 110 4.5.8 SARU and non-racial matches 111 4.6 FROM ISOLATION TO INTERGRATION 114 4.7 CONCLUSION 124 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 126 5.1 INTRODUCTION 126 5.2 A QUALITATIVE APPROACH 126 5.3 GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH 127 iii 5.4 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 129 5.4.1 Data collection 130 5.4.2 Research question 131 5.5 THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER 133 5.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH 134 5.7 THE DATA COMPARISON PROCESS 134 5.8 EMERGENCE OF THE RESEARCH CATEGORIES 136 5.9 THE CODING PROCESS 137 5.10 DATA INTERPRETATION 139 5.11 CONCLUSION 139 CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH REPORT 141 6.1 INTRODUCTION 141 6.2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 141 6.3 RESEARCH OUTCOMES 142 6.4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 143 6.4.1 An overview 143 6.4.2 Transformation of data 146 6.5 RESEARCH FINDINGS 151 6.5.1 How democratic are the rugby structures in South Africa? 153 6.5.2 Was the development programme in rugby successful? 155 6.5.3 How do you see quota-players and merit selected players? 160 6.5.4 How do you see South African rugby in the future? 163 6.5.5 Has real transformation taken place in rugby? 167 6.5.6 Any problems or obstacles regarding rugby transformation? 172 6.5.7 Can rugby reconcile different cultural groups through 176 transformation? 6.5.8 What are your views on representivity in rugby? 181 iv 6.5.9 What would you suggest or recommend for the transformation 184 process to be successful? 6.5.10 Emerging themes 192 6.6 ANALYTICAL MEMOS 196 6.7 WRITTEN REPORT 200 6.7.1 Reflexivity 200 6.7.2 Confidentiality 201 6.8 DATA SYNTHESIS 202 6.8.1 Paradoxes of sport 202 6.8.2 Tokenism or "window-dressing" 203 6.8.3 Transformation and democracy 205 6.8.4 Empowerment 206 6.8.5 Meritocracy 207 6.8.6 Mentorship/Guardianship 208 6.9 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFORMATION 209 6.9.1 Equity and Access 209 6.9.2 Non-racialism 210 6.9.3 Redress and representivity 211 6.9.4 Accountability and transparency 212 6.9.5 Development and excellence 213 6.9.6 Capacity building 214 6.10 CONCLUSION 215 CHAPTER 7: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 217 7.1 INTRODUCTION 217 7.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE 218 TRANSFORMATION OF SOUTH AFRICAN RUGBY 7.2.1 Emerging themes 219 7.2.1.1 Disrespect for social integration 220 7.2.1.2 Creation of a dysfunctional social system 223 7.2.1.3 Development of authoritative behaviour 228 7.2.1.4 Leaning towards pseudo-democracy 231 7.2.1.5 Resistance to change 234 7.2.1.6 Lack of resources 238 v 7.2.1.7 Lack of interdependence 243 7.2.1.8 Lack of integrity 246 7.2.2 Summary 248 7.2.3 The incorporation of merit driven actions and political change 248 7.2.3.1 Conceptualisation 249 7.2.3.2 Integrative management and leadership 250 7.2.3.3 Restructuring of South African rugby 253 7.2.3.4 Summary 255 7.3 REFLECTIONS ON TRANSFORMATION 256 7.4 CONCLUSION 258 REFERENCES 259 APPENDIX 1: FIRST QUESTIONNAIRE 285 APPENDIX 2: SECOND QUESTIONNAIRE 286 APPENDIX 3: THIRD QUESTIONNAIRE 287 APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED 290 APPENDIX 5: TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS & NETWORKING 294 APPENDIX 6: LIST OF TABLES 296 APPENDIX 7: LIST OF BOXES 297 APPENDIX 8: LIST OF FIGURES 298 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 299 ABSTRACT 301 vi TRANSFORMATION AND DEMOCRATIZATION OF SOUTH AFRICAN SPORT IN THE NEW CONSTITUTIONAL DISPENSATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RUGBY AS A SPORT CODE JOSEPH A. SMILES Ph.D. – THESIS 2012 vii A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph.D.–degree in the Faculty of Humanities, Department of Political Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State 2012 Promoter: Prof. B. Anderson viii DECLARATION i. I declare that the thesis for the qualification of this Ph.D.–degree at the University of the Free State, is my own work and that I have not submitted it for a degree at another university/ faculty. ii. I also declare that the thesis, Transformation and Democratization of South African Sport in the New Constitutional Dispensation with Special Reference to Rugby as a Sport Code, is my own work and that all the sources that have been used or quoted have been acknowledged by means of references. J.A. Smiles ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Several people deserve my sincere acknowledgements for their most precious contributions. First and foremost, Professor Ben Anderson, who inspired and persuaded me to re-start this research project. He consistently provided me with clear guidance, support and encouragement. Prof. Anderson has been an excellent supervisor and I thank him for sharing his professional advice. I also wish to thank Dr Rika Viljoen for her assistance in the development stages of my project. Her guidance has been invaluable in terms of conceptualising this thesis. I greatly appreciate the support I received from all the interviewees and participants. They shared their precious time and wisdom with me. I am also immensely grateful to Ms Mitzi Cloete who diligently did the typing of the scripts, as well as the technical aspects of the thesis. To my two daughters, Larissa and Genevieve, who assisted me to type and transcribe the interviews – a special word of thanks and gratitude. Lastly to my two sons, Denver and Angelo, who are very critical about rugby transformation in our country, I thank them for their observations and contributions. x DEDICATION Throughout my research years as an academic and lecturer, the people very close to me, my wife, children and grandchildren, always encouraged me with their continuous support and confidence in me. I cannot find the words to express my gratitude towards my loving wife, Valda, for her meaningful role and anticipation in my starting and completing this thesis. Therefore, I also wish to express my appreciation to my family for their love, steady affirming presence and believing in me and my potential. Thank you for all your support and encouragement as my family. You are central to my well – being as a person. xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND Many South Africans are frustrated with the slow pace of transformation and democracy in sport, and especially in rugby, since the new constitutional dispensation commenced in 1994.