University of Bath PHD A comprehensive and comparative study of strategies for international tourism and its marketing with special reference to Turkey. Akat, Omer Award date: 1982 Awarding institution: University of Bath Link to publication Alternative formats If you require this document in an alternative format, please contact: [email protected] General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 10. Oct. 2021 A COMPREHENSIVE AND COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STRATEGIES FOR INTERNATIONAL TOURISM AND ITS MARKETING WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TURKEY Submitted by OMER AKAT for the degree of Ph.D. of the University of Bath. 1982 COPYRIGHT "Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rests with its author. This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author". "This thesis may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purpose of consultation". OMER AKAT ProQuest Number: U641685 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest U641685 Published by ProQuest LLC(2015). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.Q. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 To my F a m ily and To J i l l PREFACE It is often accepted that the key to modernization of today's less developed countries is their international transformation from traditional agricultural economies to industrialized economies. Given that such countries typically have an historical base of exporting primary commodities and that such a transformation has large requirements for foreign exchange as a source of savings and capital formation, much attention has been directed to the role of international trade as a facilitator in this long and slow process. It may be said, in view of the limited and unstable world markets, that the exporting of staple products is not sufficient to perform this facilitating role. International tourism has many characteristics that make it an inportant part of a viable development strategy for a broad group of countries if well planned. The unusual characteristics of tourism as an export product provide an escape from many of the international dilemmas. In addition to its possibilities as a source of foreign exchange, the in­ dustry has potential to transform the country's economy concerned from traditional agricultural to a more diversified and sometimes modern industrial society. There are however, many socio-economic cultural and environmental ramifications involved in developing a tourism industry, all requiring thorough planning, control and marketing. Turkey with her characteristics could produce a viable tourist product at least in the long-run to obtain badly needed foreign exchange to sustain economic growth and overall development. 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study could not have been completed without the assistance and encouragement of many individuals and organisations, I would first of all like to express my indebtedness to the consider­ able stimulus and guidance I have received from mg thesis supervisor^ Professor R,E, Thomasj Head of the School of Management, whose encouragement was of great help throughout my study and stay at Bath University, Mention must be made of the financial support received from the Turkish Ministry of Education which allowed me to pursue my studies in the United Kingdom, Thanks are also due to the many people both in the United Kingdom and Turkey who provided much useful information which is incorporated in this study. To Miss A,d, Bannister, I would like to convey my thanks for. the degree of patience which she has shown during the completion of this study and the assistance she has given in making it more readable. My thanks also go to Mrs, K, Jupe, Secretary to Professor R,E, Thomas and to the staff of the University Library for their help. I would also like to express my appreciation for the speed and skill displayed by Miss Carol Self and Miss Angela Harrington in typing this thesis. iii SUMMARY International tourism, as an invisible export product, has been growing considerably with its many economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts on both tourist importing and exporting countries in the world. The unique and multifaceted characteristics of this product make it necessary for the countries concerned to take a conprehensive approach to its production, control and dynamic marketing in harmony with the overall socio-economic development of the country. This study describes and analyses the tourism product and its overall impacts and provides a conceptual, corporate planning model in which not only developing countries but all can find a background. The study goes through four main stages of which the first is the theo- rectical analysis of the tourism industry, its conceptual background, its growth, factors affecting the growth and its overall effects, par­ ticularly on developing countries. It then proceeds to the second part with the planning and control of tourism development, and to the marketing of the tourism product. It evaluates the developments in these fields on a ccmparative basis. The third part of the study begins with an overall picture of the Turkish economy in detail, together with social and political considera­ tions, identifying problems of and prospects for development. It then goes on to provide a thorough examination of both the demand for, and supply of the Turkish tourism product, illustrating how the theoretical model set in the first and second parts could be used in analysing the data. Effectiveness of Turkey's tourism policies is measured,where possible on a con^arative basis, identifying main problemsemd possible solutions. The conclusions of the detailed analysis are given in the fourth emd final part of the study in order that policies for a healthy development of international tourism in developing countries and in Turkey particularly, may be formulated and hence followed. iv CONTENTS Page PREFACE i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii SUMMARY iii ABBREVIATIONS ix LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND MAPS xi PART I : BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Purpose and Limitations of the Study 3 1.3 Methodology 5 1.4 The History of International Tourism 9 1.5 Definitions 10 1.6 Problems in the Recording and Compiling of Tourism Statistics 12 1.7 Tourist Motivations and Types of International Tourism and Tourist 13 1.8 Dimensions of World Tourism and Its Signifiance 16 1.8.1 Trends Over the Last Two Decades 16 1.8.2 Tourism in the OECD Area and its Economic Importance 4.9 1.8.3 Developing Countries' Share of International Tourism 23 1.9 Tourism as a Factor of Economic Development 26 CHAPTER 2 - FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH AND ORIGINS OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Factors Affecting Demand for Tourism 32 2.2.1 Personal Disposable Income 32 2.2.2 Leisure and Paid Holidays 34 2.2.3 Demographic Considerations 37 2.2.3.1 Household Size and Structure 40 2.2.3.2 Urbanization 41 2.2.4 Awareness and Attitudes 43 2.3 Factors Affecting the Supply of Tourism 44 2.3.1 Mobility Increased by Car-Ownership 44 2.3.2 Reducing the Real Cost of Travel 48 2.3.3 Facilities, Amenities and Promotion 49 2.4 Factors Handicapping Tourism 51 2.5 Origin Regions of International Tourism 53 2.5.1 Total Origin-Generated Travel Patterns 54 2.5.2 The Country Potential Generation Index (CPGI) 56 2.5.3 Travel Propensity Index (TPI) 61 CHAPTER 3 - THE OVERALL IMPACTS OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM AND PROBLEMS OF DEPENDENCE 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Tourism as an Invisible E3q>ort 66 3.3 International Tourism and the Balance of Payments 69 3.3.1 Import Content and Leakages 71 3.4 Income Effects of International Tourism 74 3.4.1 Calculation and Use of the Income Multiplier 76 3.5 Employment Created by Tourism 78 3.5.1 Tourism and Regional Development 80 3.6 Government Revenues and Costs 82 3.6.1 Government Expenditure 83 3.6.1.1 Infrastructural Costs 84 3.6 .1.2 The Costs of Grants and Incentives 85 3.7 Other Economic Implications 87 3.8 Socio-Cultural Impacts 89 3.8.1 Residents' Reaction to Tourists 90 3.8.2 Direct Impacts 91 3.8.3 Demonstration