The Upanishads and Hindu Philosophical and Religious Tradi4ons Themes from the Upanishads 1. Impermanence and Permanence • The world of sense objects is impermanent, but there is a permanent, enduring reality. • This permanent reality is sat-chit-ananda (being- consciousness-bliss). • When sat-chit-ananda is viewed as an external, cosmic reality, it is called “Brahman.” When viewed as the inner reality of the individual person, it is called “Atman.” 2. The Brahman Reality • Many of the Upanishads teach that Brahman is non-duality, and iden4cal with Atman. • Non-dual sat-chit-ananda appears or manifests as the mul4plicity of objects in our experience. What endures is one, but it’s name and form (nama- rupa) is many. • The non-dual concep4on of the Brahman/Atman reality implies ul4mate reality has no aributes (nirguna) and is thus not a personal being. Brahma Vishnu Shiva The Non-Dual interpretaon of Brahman implies that “gods” represent different provisional manifestaons of formless Brahman. Brahma Vishnu Shiva The Trimur3 (three forms) represent formless Brahman manifested or immanent in the cosmic processes of creaon, preservaon, and dissolu4on/ recreaon of the cosmos. This is the meaning of the mantra OM or AUM. Brahman as Personal God • The Upanishads also refer to Brahman under various aributes (saguna Brahman), including those indicave of personhood: knowledge, will, and moral goodness (Svetasvatara Upanishad, VI.1-23). • Some passages in Mundaka Upanishad subordinate imperishable Brahman to the supreme “Purusha” (person). • Other later Upanishads emphasize personal theism (e.g. Katha, Isa, and Svetasvatara). Atman and Personal God • Brahman as the Supreme personal being implies that atman (the true Self) and the Absolute are dis4nct, though in4mately related to each other. • This also suggests a plurality of atman reali4es, as mul4ple finite manifestaons of the infinite essence of Brahman. • The true Self of each person is to Brahman what a wave is to the ocean. 3. The Human Condi4on • The impermanence of the world is found also in the human disposi4on to iden4ty Self with the body-mind. • The “separate self” is the atman reality condi4oned by aachments to sense objects. • ALachment = iden4fying the Self with the body or mind (thinking, perceiving, and sensing). Unhappiness • Where there is a “separate self,” there is unhappiness, lack of peace, lack of sasfac4on or fulfillment. • By virtue of its self-understanding, the “separate self” is by defini4on separated from the permanent sacred reality that alone is the peace or fulfillment it seeks. • The “self-understanding” of the separate self is really a form of ignorance (avidya). 4. Spiritual Prac4ce The Upanishads refer to a variety of “spiritual prac4ces” by means of which the separate self is dismantled and true peace (ananda) is realized. Unhappiness Separate Self ALachment to Sense Objects Since the separate self is grounded in aachment to sense objects, the dissolu4on of the self-separate self is by way of non-aachment, which is facilitated by three prac4ces: • Discriminaon (jnana) between what is enduring and non-enduring. • Meditaon (dhyana) on the inner Self or God as the enduring reality. • Love or devo4onal service (bhak3) to the Self or God. The Upanishads and Hindu Philosophical Tradi4ons Sankhya Philosophy • Oldest systemac philosophy of the Hindu tradi4ons, extending back to the period of the Upanishads. • Central concepts: the dis4nc4on between maer (prakri) and consciousness (purusha). Liberaon from samsara requires cul4vaon of prac4ces to realize the Self as consciousness uncondi4oned by maer. • Sankhya is dualis4c: there are many true selves. • Sankhya is atheis4c, since belief in a god is not part of Sankhya. Raja-Yoga of Patanjali • Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (circa 100 BCE – 500 CE). • One’s true Self is purusha or atman, buried beneath the layers of a separate self. • Yoga is chi@a-vri nirodha, s4lling the thought forms of the mind by prac4ces of moral virtue, discriminaon, meditaon, including physical posture and breath control. • Belief in a personal god is included in the Yoga Darshan. It’s a marginal element, though, since what is essen4al for liberaon is individual self-effort not the grace of a god. Vedanta Originang with Shankara (circa 9th century CE) - the systemac elaboraon of the Upanishads. Shankara’s tradi4on of Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta, “advaita” meaning not-two. This school of Vedanta adopts a radically non-dual understanding of reality. By contrast, Bhak4 Vedanta tradi4ons affirm that Brahman is ul4mately a personal reality, the true self of each person is dis4nct from Brahman and each other, even though they are in4mately related. Vedanta in the United States The Advaita tradi4on came to the United States in the last quarter of the 20th century through the teachings of Swami Vivekananda (right), the great disciple of 19th century guru Sri Ramakrishna (lee). Vedanta in the United States The Bhak4 tradi4on came to the United States in the 1960s under the guidance of A.C. Bhak4vedanta Swami Prabhupada, founder of the Hare Krishna movement (a species of Vaishnavism) Devo4onal Hindu Religious Tradi4ons Textual Sources • Theism (belief in a single Supreme personal being) emerges in many of the later Upanishads (8th-6th centuries BCE). • Theism is an important mo4f in the Epic literature of India beginning around the 5th century BCE. • The Bhagavad Gita (circa 300 BCE), for example, emphasized the ul4mately personal nature of ulmate reality (Brahman), as well as its manifestaon in human form as Bhagavan (Lord) Krishna. The Puranas • Hindu devo4onal tradi4ons are also based on the various texts called the Puranas, which were composed largely during the Gupta period (circa 320-500 century CE), and revised during the medieval period. • The Puranas are conceptually influenced by aspects of both the Upanishads and Epic literature. As such they are an interes4ng blend of non-dual philosophy, cosmology, and theism. The Puranas • The Puranas are essen4al for understanding worship of the gods in the mainline devo4onal tradi4ons of India today. • Although acknowledging many of the different gods of the Hindu pantheon, the Puranas demonstrate the rise in popularity of the worship of Vishnu and the worship of Shiva as the Supreme being. • Some of the Puranas are wriLen from a sectarian viewpoint in which Vishnu or Shiva is the Supreme being, and all other gods are subordinate en44es. Bhak4 Renaissance • Between the 6th to 9th centuries CE, bhak4 tradi4ons grew in intensity in South India among many poets and mys4cs, and by the 11th century were widespread in North India. • The worship of Vishnu (Vaishnavism) and Shiva (Shaivism) as the Supreme being were the prominent general forms of religious worship in the Bhak4 tradi4ons. • Bhak4 tradi4ons emphasized the loss of ego in total surrender and love for God, oeen rejec4ng more formalized aspects of religious worship (formal temple worship, yoga, and theology). Contemporary Devo4onal Tradi4ons Vaishnavism: Worship of Vishnu or Krishna as the Supreme Being. Vaishnava Tradi4ons • Vaishnavism designates a variety of different tradi4ons centered on the worship of Vishnu (or Krishna) and his many expansions or manifestaons. • Some Vaishnava tradi4ons (dvaita) are strongly dualis4c in nature, affirming a dis4nc4on between God, the world, and souls. Others (Vishishtadvaita) are non-dualis4c with qualificaon: souls are part of God’s being. Others (Gaudiya Vaishnavism) affirm the simultaneous difference and non-difference between the Self and God. Shaivism: Worship of Shiva as the Supreme Being. Saiva Siddhanta: Dualistic – Shiva and the devotee are distinct. Kasmir Shaivism: Non-dualism – Shiva and the devotee are non- distinct, whose essential nature is consciousness. Shaktism: Worship of Shakti or Devi – the Divine Mother – as the Supreme Being. Rooted in the Puranas and Tantric texts. Less clearly defined than Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Often indistinguishable from Shaivism. Smartism: Worship of one’s own chosen deity as one among many different manifestations of formless Brahman. Philosophically grounded in Advaita Vedanta. “Truth is one, but the sages call it by different names.” – Rig Veda References • Steven Rosen, Essential Hinduism (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006). • R.C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), Chapters 2-4. • R.C. Zaehner, Hinduism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). • Swami Prabhavanda, The Spiritual Heritage of India: A Clear Summary of Indian Philosophy and Religion (Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Press, 1979), Chapters 1-3. • Gavin Flood, Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge University Press, 1996). • Hans Torwesten, Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism (New York: Grove Press, 1991), Chapter 1. • Dominic Goodall (ed.), Hindu Scriptures (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). .