Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities This page intentionally left blank Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities Edited by C.A. Scott International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Patancheru, India N.I. Faruqui International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa, Canada and L. Raschid-Sally International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Colombo, Sri Lanka CAB International in association with the International Water Management Institute and the International Development Research Centre CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International CABI Publishing CABI Publishing CAB International 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.cabi-publishing.org Published in association with: International Water Management Institute International Development Research Centre PO Box 2075 PO Box 8500 Colombo Ottawa, Ontario Sri Lanka Canada K1G 3H9 www.iwmi.cgiar.org www.idrc.ca; [email protected] ©CAB International 2004. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture : confronting the livelihood and environmental realities / edited by C.A. Scott, N.I. Faruqui, and L. Raschid-Sally p.cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-85199-823-2 (alk. paper) 1. Sewage irrigation—Developing countries. I. Scott, Christopher A. (Christopher Anand) II. Faruqui, Naser I. III. Raschid-Sally, L. (Liqa) IV. Title. TD760.W356 2004 628.3'623'091724--dc22 2004005304 ISBN 0 85199 823 2 (CABI hardback edition) ISBN 92 90 90 5506 (IWMI/IDRC paperback edition) ISBN 1-55250-112-4 (IDRC electronic edition) Printed and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, from copy supplied by the editors. Contents Contributors v Foreword vii Acknowledgements ix 1. Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Management Challenges in Developing Countries 1 C.A. Scott, N.I. Faruqui and L. Raschid-Sally 2. A Framework for a Global Assessment of the Extent of Wastewater 11 Irrigation: The Need for a Common Wastewater Typology Wim van der Hoek 3. A Sustainable Livelihoods Approach for Action Research on Wastewater Use in Agriculture 25 Stephanie J. Buechler 4. Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture: Developing Realistic Guidelines 41 R.M. Can, U.J. Blumenthal and D.D. Mara 5. A Fresh Look at Microbial Guidelines for Wastewater Irrigation in Agriculture: A Risk-assessment and Cost-effectiveness Approach 59 Badri Fattal, Yael Lampert and Hillel Shuval 6. Wastewater Irrigation - Hazard or Lifeline? Empirical Results 69 from Nairobi, Kenya and Kumasi, Ghana G.A. Cornish and N.C. Kielen 7. National Assessments on Wastewater Use in Agriculture 81 and an Emerging Typology: The Vietnam Case Study L. Raschid-Sally, Doan Doan Tuan and Sarath Abayawardana 8. Wastewater Use in Pakistan: The Cases of Haroonabad and Faisalabad 91 Jeroen H.J. Ensink, R.W. Simmons and Wim van der Hoek iii iv Contents 9. Agricultural Use of Untreated Urban Wastewater in Ghana 101 B.N. Keraita and P. Drechsel 10. Untreated Wastewater Use in Market Gardens: A Case Study 113 of Dakar, Senegal N.I. Faruqui, S. Niang and M. Redwood 11. Wastewater Irrigation in Vadodara, Gujarat, India: Economic 127 Catalyst for Marginalised Communities Vaibhav Bhamoriya 12. The Use of Wastewater in Cochabamba, Bolivia: A Degrading Environment 135 Frans P. Huibers, Oscar Moscoso, Alfredo Duron and Jules B. van Lier 13. Treatment Plant Effects on Wastewater Irrigation Benefits: Revisiting 145 a Case Study in the Guanajuato River Basin, Mexico Paula Silva-Ochoa and C.A. Scott 14. From Wastewater Reuse to Water Reclamation: Progression of Water Reuse 153 Standards in Jordan Peter G. McCornick, Amal Hijazi and Bahman Sheikh 15. Treated Wastewater Use in Tunisia: Lessons Learned and the Road Ahead 163 Shobha Shetty 16. Confronting the Realities of Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Lessons Learned and Recommendations 173 N.I. Faruqui, C.A. Scott and L. Raschid-Sally Appendix 1. The Hyderabad Declaration on Wastewater Use in Agriculture 187 Index 189 Contributors Sarath Abayawardana, Director, Global Research Division, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Vaibhav Bhamoriya, Research Associate, IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program, International Water Management Institute, Elecon, Anand-Sojitra Road, Vallabh Vidyangar, Anand 388 001, Gujarat, India, [email protected] U.J. Blumenthal, Senior Lecturer in Tropical Environmental Epidemiology, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK, [email protected] Stephanie J. Buechler, Post-Doctoral Researcher, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), South Asia Regional Office, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India, [email protected], [email protected] R.M. Carr, Scientist, Water, Sanitation and Health Unit, World Health Organization, 20, Avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland, [email protected] G.A. Cornish, Project Manager, International Development Group, HR Wallingford Limited, Howbery Park, Wallingford, OX10 8BA, UK, [email protected] P. Drechsel, Senior Researcher/Head of Office, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), West Africa Sub-Regional Office, PMB CT112, Cantonments, Accra, Ghana, [email protected] Alfredo Duran General Coordinator, Centra Andino para la Gestion y Uso del Agua (Centra AGUA), San Simon University, PO Box 4926, Cochabamba, Bolivia, [email protected] Jeroen HJ. Ensink, Research Associate, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), South Asia Regional Office, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India, [email protected] N.I. Faruqui, Senior Specialist - Water, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), 250 Albert Street, PO Box 8500, Ottawa, KIG 3H9, Canada, [email protected] Badri Fattal, Professor of Environmental Health, Division of Environmental Sciences, Freddy and Nadine Herrmann School of Applied Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 91904, Jerusalem, Israel [email protected]. il Amal Hijazi, Project Management Specialist, Water Resources and Environment Office, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) American Embassy, PO Box 354, Amman 11118, Jordan, [email protected] v vi Contributors Wim van der Hoek, Consultant - Water, Health and Environment, International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Bierstalpad 37,1121JK Landsmeer, The Netherlands, [email protected] Frans P. Huibers, Associate Professor Health and Environment, Wageningen University, Department of Environmental Sciences, Irrigation and Water Engineering Group, Nieuwe Kanaal 11, 6709 PA Wageningen, The Netherlands, [email protected] B.N. Keraita, Irrigation and Water Engineer/Research Assistant, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), West Africa Sub-Regional Office, PMB CT 112, Cantonments, Accra, Ghana, [email protected] N.C. Kielen, Irrigation Specialist, International Development Group, HR Wallingford Limited, Howbery Park, Wallingford, OX10 8BA, UK, [email protected] Yael Lampert, Graduate Student, Department of Ecology, Bar Ilan University, Ranut Gan, Israel Jules B. van Lier, Researcher Sub-Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Technology and Director Lettinga Associates Foundation, PO Box 500, 6700 AM Wageningen, The Netherlands, [email protected] D.D. Mara, Professor, School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK [email protected] Peter G. McCornick, Water Resources and Irrigation Specialist, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), PO Box 230610, Centreville, Virginia 20120, USA, [email protected] Oscar Moscoso, Civil Engineer - Environmental Engineering, Researcher, Centro de Aguas y Saneamiento Ambiental (CAS A), San Simon University, Department of Water Treatment, Calle Sucre final y Parcjue La Torre, San Simon University, 5783 Cochabamba, Bolivia, [email protected] S. Niang, Maitre Assistant, Institut Fondamental de I'Afrique Noire (IFAN), Ch. Diop BP 206, Universite Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD), Dakar, Senegal, [email protected] L. Raschid-Sally, Senior Researcher, Coordinator Wastewater Agriculture Program, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka, [email protected] M. Redwood, Project Officer, Cities Feeding People/Agriculture Urbaine, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), PO Box 8500, Ottawa, KIG 3H9, Canada, [email protected] C.A. Scott, Principal Researcher and Regional Director - South Asia, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), South Asia Regional Office, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India, [email protected] Bahman Sheikh, Water Reuse Consultant, 3524 22nd Street, San Francisco, California 94114-3406, USA, [email protected] Shobha Shetty, Senior Economist, The World Bank, Jakarta Stock Exchange Building, Tower 2,12th Floor, Jalan Jendral Sudirman Jakarta 12190 Indonesia, [email protected]