THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS AND THE HORSE: DECONSTRUCTING A EUROCENTRIC MYTH By Yvette Running Horse Collin A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Indigenous Studies University of Alaska Fairbanks May 2017 © 2017 Yvette Running Horse Collin APPROVED: Raymond Barnhardt, Ph.D., Committee Chair Beth Ginondidoy Leonard, Ph.D., Committee Co-Chair Theresa Arevgaq John, Ph.D., Committee Member Marco A. Oviedo, Ph.D., Committee Member Michael Koskey, Ph.D., Department Chair Todd Sherman, M.F.A., Dean, College of Liberal Arts Michael Castellini, Ph.D., Dean of the Graduate School Abstract This research project seeks to deconstruct the history of the horse in the Americas and its relationship with the Indigenous Peoples of these same lands. Although Western academia admits that the horse originated in the Americas, it claims that the horse became extinct in these continents during the Last Glacial Maximum (between roughly 13,000 and 11,000 years ago). This version of “history” credits Spanish conquistadors and other early European explorers with reintroducing the horse to the Americas and to her Indigenous Peoples. However, many Native Nations state that “they always had the horse” and that they had well established horse cultures long before the arrival of the Spanish. To date, “history” has been written by Western academia to reflect a Eurocentric and colonial paradigm. The traditional knowledge (TK) of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, and any information that is contrary to the accepted Western academic view, has been generally disregarded, purposefully excluded, or reconfigured to fit the accepted academic paradigm. Although mainstream academia and Western science have not given this Native TK credence to date, this research project shows that there is no reason - scientific or otherwise - that this traditional Native claim should not be considered true. The results of this thesis conclude that the Indigenous horse of the Americas survived the “Ice Age” and the original Peoples of these continents had a relationship with them from Pleistocene times to the time of “First-Contact.” In this investigation, Critical Indigenous Research Methodologies (CIRM) and Grounded Theory (GT) are utilized in tandem to deconstruct the history of the horse in the Americas and reconstruct it to include cross-cultural translation, the TK of many Indigenous Peoples, Western scientific evidence, and historical records. This dissertation suggests that the latest technology combined with guidance and information from our Indigenous Peoples has the power to reconstruct the history of the horse in the Americas in a way that is unbiased and accurate. This will open new avenues of possibility for academia as a whole, as well as strengthen both Native and non-Native communities. iii iv Acknowledgements This work is dedicated to the Creator of all life, the Ancestors, and to the next seven generations. It is my prayer that this work honors you ... Wopila (a deep thank you) to: My husband and my children, for your love and your willingness to change your lives to support this vision; Nakota Wind, Cheyenne Faith, and the rest of my four-legged relatives ... you have taught me about faith, truth, and the circle of life; My two fathers - Dale Lone Elk Casteel and Robert G. Ward; The Black Hills Sioux Nation Council Elders, Theresa Two Bulls, and the rest ofOceti the Sakowin ... it is good to be home; The project participants who so generously entrusted me with their traditional knowledge, life’s work, professional, and personal experiences; The Indigenous scholars whose work served as a beacon; And to the rest of my family, friends, and helpers . To my outstanding Committee Members for your unwavering dedication and support. You have truly been the “icing on the cake” for me: Ray Barnhardt, Ph.D., Beth Ginondidoy Leonard, Ph.D., Theresa Arevgaq John, Ph.D., and Marco A. Oviedo, Ph.D. To my iconic Advisory Committee Members . for helping to steer this work: Loretta Afraid of Bear-Cook, TomKanatakeniate Cook, Mike Koskey, Ph.D., Leo Kuntz, and Bryant and Darlene Rickman My gratitude and appreciation extends to the University of Alaska Fairbanks Graduate School, and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for their generous support. v vi Table of Contents Page Title Page......................................................................................................................................................i Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents..................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures............................................................................................................................................ix List of Appendices.................................................................................................................................... xi Preface...................................................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 A Eurocentric M yth................................................................................................................1 1.2 Researcher Background....................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Project Participants, Timeline, and Context......................................................................15 1.4 Methodology and Methods..................................................................................................16 1.5 Summary................................................................................................................................ 18 Chapter 2 Literature Review...................................................................................................................21 2.1 Challenges in Conducting a Relevant Literature Review............................................... 21 2.2 Deconstructing the Dominant Culture Theory..................................................................32 2.3 A Review of Available Literature of the Subject Matter................................................ 35 2.4 Importance of This General Issue to Academia................................................................46 2.5 Summary................................................................................................................................48 Chapter 3 Methodologies and Methods................................................................................................ 51 3.1 Need for an Indigenous Research Paradigm..................................................................... 54 3.2 Methodology..........................................................................................................................59 3.3 Transmitting and Receiving Sacred Knowledge ............................................................. 63 3.4 Methods.................................................................................................................................. 65 3.5 Summary................................................................................................................................ 70 Chapter 4 Data Analysis of Interviews................................................................................................. 73 4.1 Project Participants...............................................................................................................74 4.2 Application of Methodologies............................................................................................ 77 4.3 Patterns Within the Data Collected.................................................................................... 79 vii 4.4 Summary..............................................................................................................................95 Chapter 5 Further Analysis Regarding Native Peoples and the Indigenous Horse of the Americans: Acquisition, Spirituality, Healing, and Husbandry........................... 103 5.1 Differences Between Indigenous and Western Academic Historical Perspectives.....................................................................................103 5.2 Origins Signify a Spiritual Relationship..........................................................................108 5.3 Horse Healing, Horse Medicine, and Ceremonies......................................................... 115 5.4 Husbandry ............................................................................................................................124 5.5 Summary.............................................................................................................................. 132 Chapter 6 Further Analysis of Western Academic Equine Science................................................. 133 6.1 Presence of Cultural Bias Within Equine Science........................................................