books (JPEG Image, 685x1026 pixels) - Scaled (72%) http://books.google.com/books?id=DlRlYq5u-J8C&pg=PP1&img=1&zo... 1 of 1 10/1/2009 8:26 AM UPLAND RICE A Global Perspective P. C. GUPTA J. C. O'TOOLE 1986 International Rice Research Institute Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the Ford and Rockfeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 13 nonprofit international research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors including: the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Com- munity, the Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Develop- ment Programme, the World Bank, and the international aid agencies of the following governments: Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States. The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice Research Institute. Copyright © International Rice Research Institute 1986 All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording. or other- wise, without prior permission of IRRI. This permission will not be unreasonably withheld for use for noncommercial purposes. IRRI does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published works, and hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish the bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research and development. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IRRI concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Contents Foreword vii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Copyrighted materials xi Unpublished references xii Chapter 1 UPLAND RICE DISTRIBUTION Geographical distribution 1 Southeast Asia 1 South Asia 4 Africa 6 Latin America 8 Environmental distribution 8 Asia 9 Africa 10 Latin America 11 Chapter 2 CLIMATE Rainfall 15 Temperature 19 Radiation 23 Interactions of agroclimatic factors 27 Evaporation and evapotranspiration 27 Water balance 28 Agroclimatic classification systems and crop season 32 Climate and insect and disease incidence 36 Chapter 3 LANDSCAPE AND SOILS Landscape 41 Classification of upland rice soils 41 Soil properties 47 Physical properties 47 Chemical properties 51 Soil-related constraints 55 Physical constraints 55 Chemical constraints 55 Soil fertility classification 55 Chapter 4 CROPPING SYSTEMS Terminology 63 Shifting cultivation 64 Cropping patterns for shifting cultivation 65 Improving shifting cultivation 66 Pioneer cultivation 66 Alley cropping 67 Monoculture 68 Effect of monocropping on yield 68 Mixed cropping 70 Intercropping 72 Benefits of intercropping 73 Problems of intercropping 74 Evaluating intercropping 74 Intercropping upland rice 75 Intercropping productivity 76 Selecting component crops 80 Fertilizer and crop management 81 Insects and diseases 87 Economic advantages 89 Relay cropping 89 Crop sequencing and multiple cropping 91 Multiple cropping with upland rice 92 Influence of multiple cropping on soil properties 95 Choosing a superior cropping pattern 96 Chapter 5 VARIETAL IMPROVEMENT Evolution of upland rices 103 Characteristics of upland rices 105 Breeding objectives 107 Favorable environments 111 Unfavorable environments 112 Breeding methods and procedures 113 Breeding methods 113 Breeding procedures 116 Progress in varietal improvement 117 Africa 117 South and Southeast Asia 121 Latin America 125 International Rice Testing Program 129 International cooperation to conserve genetic resources 132 Breeding for specific traits 134 Blast resistance 134 Resistance to other diseases 139 Insect pest resistance 140 Resistance to soil acidity and A1 and Mg toxicities 142 Salinity resistance 145 Cold tolerance 146 Drought resistance 148 Chapter 6 SOIL MANAGEMENT Soil water management 175 Conserving soil moisture 177 Soil conservation and erosion control 183 Erosion stages 185 Erosion in upland rice soils 186 Factors affecting erosion losses 186 Erosion control 188 Soil fertility management 193 Nutrient uptake 193 Nitrogen management 197 Factors affecting nitrogen response 206 Phosphorus management 211 Potassium management 217 Other nutrients 218 Organic manure 220 Problem soil management 222 Acid soils and aluminum toxicity 223 Effect of aluminum saturation and pH on rice growth 223 Amelioration of acid soils 226 Chapter 7 LAND PREPARATION AND CROP ESTABLISHMENT Land preparation 235 Zero tillage vs conventional tillage 238 Possible advantages 238 Possible disadvantages 239 Crop establishment 239 Seeding time 240 Seeding methods 240 Seeding rate and plant spacing 241 Seeding depth 243 Seed treatment 244 Dry seeding 244 Chapter 8 FARM EQUIPMENT Land preparation equipment 247 Equipment for conventional tillage 249 Zero tillage equipment 250 Seeding equipment 250 Crop planters 250 Rolling injection planter 252 Multicrop upland seeder 254 Weed control equipment 254 Hand tools 254 Animal-drawn weeders 255 Tractor-drawn weeders 255 Comparison of different weed control equipment 257 Harvesting and threshing 258 Factors affecting harvesting and threshing 258 Optimum harvest time 258 Harvesting equipment 259 Threshing equipment 262 Chapter 9 WEED MANAGEMENT Common weeds 267 Competition 268 Critical weeding period 270 Competition for nutrients 270 Cultural practices 272 Annual and perennial weed competition 273 Allelopathy 276 Weed control practices 276 Time of land preparation 276 Land preparation method 276 Stale seedbed weed control 279 Blind cultivation 280 Rice varieties 280 Seeding method and rate 280 Hand weeding 280 Hoe weeding 281 Interrow cultivation 281 Herbicides 281 Biological control 288 Controlling parennial nut sedge 288 Weed control and fertilizer interaction 289 Herbicide, insecticide, and fertilizer compatibility 290 Integrated weed management 291 Economics of weed control practices 292 Chapter 10 DISEASE MANAGEMENT Fungus diseases 299 Blast 299 Brown spot 305 Leaf scald 306 Sheath blight 306 Glume discoloration 307 Narrow brown leaf spot 307 False smut 307 Sheath rot 308 Bacterial diseases 308 Virus diseases 308 Hoja blanca 308 Pale yellow mottle 308 Tungro 309 Nematodes 309 Disease control strategies 310 Controlling fungus diseases 310 Controlling bacterial diseases 314 Controlling virus diseases 314 Controlling nematodes 315 Chapter 11 INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT Losses to insect pests 319 Major insect pests of upland rice 319 Stem borers 320 Leafhoppers and planthoppers 321 Armyworm and cutworm 321 Grain sucking insects 321 Rice mealy bug 321 Rice leaffolder 322 Seedling fly 322 White grub 322 Termites 322 Other insect pests 322 Controlling insect pests 322 Resistant varieties 322 Chemical control 325 Cultural control 329 Biological control 333 Integrated pest management 333 Other pests 334 Rodents 334 Birds 334 Mammals 334 Chapter 12 ECONOMICS OF UPLAND RICE PRODUCTION Concepts 337 Production function 337 Law of diminishing returns 338 Profit maximization 338 Enterprise budgeting 339 Economic analysis of new technologies 340 Upland rice production 341 Labor utilization 341 Costs and returns 345 Index 353 Foreword Nearly 20 million hectares of the world’s rice growing area are planted to upland rice. About 60% is in Asia, 30% in Latin America, and 10% in Africa. Upland or dryland rice yields are quite low, accounting for only 5% of world production. The increases in world rice production over the past two decades resulted from successes in research and the transfer of modern technology. However, these successes had virtually no effect on upland rice production. This rice sector, separated hydrologically from the major lowland-flooded cultural system, has received little attention from both national and inter- national research programs. Upland rice growers, mostly subsistence farmers with few alternative sources of food, may soon share in the benefits of increased upland rice research. Before 1975, upland rice research was conducted at a few scattered locations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Since then, many national programs have targeted upland rice as a neglected agricultural commodity and have begun to establish experiment stations in upland rice areas where none previously existed. Because research on upland rice has been limited, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) recently requested all international agricultural research centers (IARCs) with rice programs to increase