0. INTRODUCTION 0.1 What is Old Church Slavonic? The Slavonic languages belong to the Indo-European Group of languages, to which the Germanic languages (which include English) belong, as well as the Romance languages, which include Latin, the Celtic languages, the Iranian languages, Sanskrit, Greek and Armenian. The Slavonic languages are usually divided into three groups: West Slavonic, including Polish and Czech and Upper and Lower Sorbian; East Slavonic, comprising Russian, Byelorussian and Ukrainian, and South Slavonic; the South Slavonic group consists of Slovenian, Serbo-Croat, Macedonian and Bulgarian. The first Slavonic language to be committed to writing was a South Slavonic dialect of Bulgarian or Macedonian type, and is called Old Church Slavonic because of its function. (In some works it is called Old Bulgarian, but this is best avoided as Old Church Slavonic is not identical with the Bulgarian language of that time.) For the relationship of Old Church Slavonic with Indo- European, see G. Nandrif, Old Church Slavonic Grarmar^ London, 1959. In the year 862, Prince Rostislav of Moravia, which was then an important grouping of Slavonic peoples in Central Europe, sent a request to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III for Slavonic- speaking missionaries to spread Christianity in his lands and counter the influence of German clergy. Constantine and his brother Methodius were chosen because the former had already proved himself as a scholar and missionary, while the latter was an experienced administrator. Both were natives of Salonica where there was a Slavonic-speaking population. The brothers' work in Moravia was approved by the pope, and in 869 Constantine and Methodius travelled to Rome where Constantine died, having taken monastic vows and assumed the name of Cyril. Methodius returned to Moravia, but Rostislav died and under his successor Svatopluk the German clergy were once more in the ascendant, having obtained the support of the new pope. After Methodius's death in 885 his disciples had to flee, and some of them established themselves in the Bulgarian Empire at the court of Tsar Simeon and in Macedonia. The independence of Bulgaria was crushed by Byzantium in the first 1 half of the 11th century, and Slavonic culture in the Balkans went into a period of decline. For the historical background see F. Dvornik, The StavSj their History and Civilization (Survey of Slavic Civilization, Vol. II), Boston, 1956, and V. Jagic, The Conversion of the Slavs (Chapt. VIIB, Vol. IV of the Cambridge Medieval History). Old Church Slavonic (abbreviation used: OCS) is the language reconstructed on the basis of linguistic analysis of lOth- and 11th- century texts which are copies of original texts, now lost, written in Moravia and Bulgaria or Macedonia by Constantine/Cyril, Methodius and their disciples. These texts consist of the Gospels, liturgies, lives of saints, homilies, etc. Most of them are translations from Greek, but a few are original. They are not very numerous or very extensive (some 17 or 18, the longest. Codex Suprasliensis, having 285 folia, and some fragments consisting only of two folia) and therefore they afford insufficient evidence for reconstructing a total picture of OCS, but they do provide enough to reconstruct a phonological system and an almost complete morphological system; the value of the syntactic evidence is discussed in the chapter on syntax. It must therefore be remembered when studying OCS that as we have only written texts, the actual phonetic quality of the lan­ guage is unknown, although it can be inferred to some extent by comparison with other Slavonic languages and analysis of the al­ phabet. It must also be borne in mind that the language of the texts may be rather artificial, as (a) the translators wished to be understood by a wide range of dialect speakers and may have avoided marked regionalisms, and (b) they introduced many caiques from Greek and some of the vocabulary and syntax may be Greek rather than Slavonic. However, these features should not be exaggerated, as all the Slavonic dialects must at that time have been very close and the intention was to be comprehensible to all, not to create an eso­ teric literary language. OCS is generally thought to be based on a Macedonian dialect from the Salonika area. Comparative evidence suggests that it was very close to Common Slavonic and was definitely a South Slavonic language of Bulgarian or Macedonian type, the two probably being not very different at that time. The problem of what OCS was originally like is complicated by the fact that while some of the Gospels were probably translated before Cyril and Methodius set out for Moravia, and were therefore written in a dialect of Macedonian type, the rest of their work was done in Moravia, where the language was West Slavonic and in­ fluenced the translators to some extent. Later Methodius's disci­ ples transferred their activities to Bulgaria, and the texts newly translated or composed for the first time were influenced by an East Bulgarian dialect, and also the earlier translations were revised, though not consistently, to bring them into line with the rest. As a result we have texts of a mixed dialectal character, as the revisions were never thorough or consistent. Some 12th- century texts show definite Bulgarian features, some show Serbian or Croatian features indicating that they were copied in Serbia or Croatia, and there is a very early text, the Kiev Fragments, which dates from the 10th century and has some Moravian features; there is also a text containing prayers (the Freising Fragments) from c. 1000, which shows Slovenian features. In Moravia Church Slavonic went out of use, being displaced by Latin. Slovenia also came under the Roman Catholic Church, but Church Slavonic continued to be used in Catholic Croatia, where a special form of the Glagolitic alphabet was used. Church Slavonic found more favourable ground in Serbia (Serbian Church Slavonic) and in Bulgaria (this variety is usually called Middle Bulgarian). The area where it enjoyed greatest popularity was, however, Russia, where it survived to become the basis of the modern literary language. The OCS texts are written in two different, although related, alphabets, the Glagolitic which may be the earliest, and the Cyrillic which is similar to the Cyrillic alphabets used in some Slavonic countries today. In Croatia a special form of the Glago­ litic alphabet was evolved, and the Freising Fragments are in the Latin alphabet. 0.2 Textbooks For a complete description of OCS as a self-contained system see H. Lunt, Old Church Slavonic Grammar, 6th revised edition, 3 1976, with full bibliography. For a fuller description which makes use of historical evidence see A. Vaillant, Manuel du vieux slave, Paris, 1948. The other OCS textbooks are listed in Lunt's bibliography, except for a few, mostly in Slavonic languages; none of the latter offers anything that is not found elsewhere, except St. Sionski, Grammatyha jqzyka starosiowiansk-iego/starobu^garskiego, Warsaw, 1950, which contains examples of consonant changes in all possible environments. For a serious study of the texts, the student should begin with Lunt and G. Nandrif, Old Church Slavonic Grarrmar, London, 1959, as these give the descriptive and historical point of view respectively. Beyond these basic textbooks, Leskien's manual (first pub­ lished 1871, 9th edition 1972) is the best of the traditional grammars and has not been surpassed. Diels (first published 1932) is more comprehensive, and A. Meillet, Le slave commun, 1934, is essential for this particular aspect. None of these includes syn­ tax, for this one has to use Vondrak (1912), ios (1922), Vaillant (1948), and Lehr-Spiawinski which includes a chapter on syntax by Cz. Bartula (4th edition 1959), or J. Kurz, V^ehnice jazyka staroslovenskeho, Prague, 1969. Leskien, Vondrak, Diels, Vaillant and some of the others in­ clude a reader with glossary. The reader by R. Auty, which ac­ companies Nandri§'s grammar, is particularly good, as it has des­ criptions of the texts, a wide selection and a full glossary. Dictionaries of OCS are not so numerous. There is an ex­ tremely useful dictionary of the 'canonic* texts. Material towards the compilation of a concise Old Church Slavonic dictionary by T. A. Lysaght, Wellington, New Zealand, 1978. Sadnik and Aitzetmiiller (1955) is rather difficult to use. A more comprehen­ sive dictionary by F. Miklosich, Lexicon palaeoslovenico-graeco- latinum (1862-65) is only useful if one knows Latin or Greek. The best is the big dictionary by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. The standard editions of the texts contain some useful glossaries, particularly that of Codex Marianus by Jagic. Finally the student may also be reminded that as a large pro­ portion of texts consists of extracts from the Bible, mainly the Gospels, a translation of some of the texts is readily available in the English Bible, although there may be some differences as the originals of the Slavonic and the English translations may differ slightly. The most useful of the various versions of the English Bible is probably the Revised Version of 1880, as it is the most literal. 0.3 The texts The OCS texts were mostly discovered and first studied in the 19th century, chiefly outside the areas in which they are presumed to have been written. This suggests that as a result of wholesale destruction caused by wars and invasions in the Balkans, a large body of MSS was annihilated and only MSS which had accidentally been preserved elsewhere remained in existence until the 19th cen­ tury. (1) Zog, Codex Zographensis Tetraevangelium (the four Gospels). Glagolitic. 288 folia plus 15 of a later date. It was presented by the monks of the Zographos monastery on Mount Athos to Tsar Alexander II in 1860; he gave it to what is now the Leningrad Public Library, where it is still.