Conservation of Ifugao Values By HANYUAN JIANG B.S South China Agricultural University 2013 THESIS Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in International Agricultural Development in the OFFICE OF GRADUATE STUDIES of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS Approved: ____________________________________ Ryan Galt, Chair ____________________________________ Kate Scow ____________________________________ Jim Hill Committee in Charge 2016 ProQuest Number:10252674 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ProQuest 10252674 Published by ProQuest LLC ( 2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 Abstract The Ifugao culture in the Philippines is experiencing various cultural changes as it connects increasingly to the non-Ifugao societies. These changes in Ifugao society, such as agriculture, religion, and tourism, are examined, and the stakeholders’ perceptions reported. Mirrored by economic, social, and environmental problems occurred in the prevailing trend of global development, the value of the traditional Ifugao culture is discovered as the values of communal cooperation and a sustainable relationship with nature. While existing conservation measures focus on Ifugao’s cultural practices, it is argued that the conservation of Ifugao values is key to maintaining the culture, and has significance even to the modern world. ii Contents List of figures........................................................................................................................................v Preface and acknowledgement......................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2 Ifugao agriculture .........................................................................................................8 2.1 Rice farming.............................................................................................................................8 2.2 Diet..........................................................................................................................................28 2.3 Food self-sufficiency .............................................................................................................33 Chapter 3 Religion .........................................................................................................................35 3.1 The traditional Ifugao religion ..............................................................................................36 3.2 Christianity and the traditional Ifugao religion....................................................................44 3.3 Ifugao under dual religions....................................................................................................51 Chapter 4 Rice terraces ................................................................................................................54 4.1 Changes in the rice terraces...................................................................................................55 4.2 Future of the rice terraces......................................................................................................70 Chapter 5 Tourism.........................................................................................................................76 5.1 Tourism and the local community.........................................................................................76 5.2 Tourists’ perspectives.............................................................................................................87 5.3 Harvest ceremony and celebration festival ..........................................................................93 5.4 Future of tourism in Ifugao ...................................................................................................96 Chapter 6 Lifestyle ........................................................................................................................98 6.1 Ifugao houses..........................................................................................................................98 6.2 Ifugao clothes.......................................................................................................................102 6.3 Ifugao dances........................................................................................................................105 6.4 Betel nut chewing ................................................................................................................108 6.5 Impression of places outside Ifugao ...................................................................................109 6.6 Intergenerational changes....................................................................................................111 Chapter 7 Value of the Ifugao culture in the face of global development trends ..............116 7.1 Economic change.................................................................................................................116 7.2 Social change........................................................................................................................118 7.3 Environmental change .........................................................................................................120 7.4 Communal cooperation........................................................................................................122 7.5 Human and nature................................................................................................................125 Chapter 8 Conservation of Ifugao values.................................................................................128 iii 8.1 Education..............................................................................................................................128 8.2 Government support ............................................................................................................130 8.3 Conservation of Ifugao values ............................................................................................132 Appendix A. Description of Navajo and Hopi people....................................................................136 Appendix B. Cooperative value in traditional California Agriculture ..........................................139 Appendix C. Sample interview questions.......................................................................................140 Appendix D. New and old rice farming calendars .........................................................................141 Appendix E. Substance, Shadow and Spirit by Tao Yuanming .....................................................142 Appendix F. Additional photos of present Ifugao life ....................................................................144 References.........................................................................................................................................162 iv List of figures Figure 1: Ifugao province in the Luzon Island, the Philippines.........................................................2 Figure 2: Centers of researched Municipalities and Ifugao State University in the map of Ifugao 3 Figure 3: Tinawon rice and two new varieties..................................................................................8 Figure 4: Farmer trampling rice stalks in the soil as fertilizer after harvest ...................................12 Figure 5: Mounds of rice stalk compost for vegetable plantation ...................................................15 Figure 6: Harvesting rice with the Ifugao harvesting knife .............................................................17 Figure 7: Bundling newly harvested rice panicles............................................................................18 Figure 8: Winnowing pounded rice next to a stone mortar..............................................................19 Figure 9: Using a mechanical thresher in the rice terraces ..............................................................20 Figure 10: Contrasting milled rice and pounded rice with more bran.............................................21 Figure 11: Rice plants in non-uniform growth stages ......................................................................23 Figure 12: A small swidden field.......................................................................................................27 Figure 13: Winged beans ready for export to cities and abroad ......................................................28 Figure 14: Rice in lunch boxes prepared by an Ifugao mother for the children.............................29 Figure 15: A traditional Ifugao meal with boiled pork, rice and winged beans served in a bowl made of bamboo trunk........................................................................................................................31