Death Does Not Rot: Women of the Lord’s Resistance Army Letha E. Victor Department of Anthropology McGill University, Montreal June 2011 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts In Anthropology with Development Studies © Letha Victor 2011 ABSTRACT From 1986 to 2006, northern Uganda was the site of a violent conflict between the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and the Government of Uganda. Based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in the Acholi sub-region in 2009, this thesis examines the narratives of young women who were abducted by the LRA, forced to serve multiple roles in “the bush,” and have since returned to civilian life. I explore the supernatural dimensions of the conflict and contend that women were agents of their own survival because they learned to manipulate their physical and cosmological circumstances, both during and after their captivity. At the margins of transitional justice debates, women negotiate their own memories within an intricate web of religiosity. Though forced into marriage, motherhood, and soldiering, only to come home to lives marked by stigma, patriarchy, and poverty, ex-LRA women are complex persons who defy the tropes of “sex slave” and “child soldier.” RÉSUMÉ De 1986 à 2006, le nord de l'Ouganda a été le site d'un conflit violent entre la «Lord's Resistance Army» (LRA) et le Gouvernement de l'Ouganda. Basée sur une recherche ethnographique menée dans la sous-région d'Acholi en 2009, cette mémoire de thèse examine les récits de jeunes femmes qui ont été enlevés par la LRA, forcés de servir de multiples rôles dans «la brousse», et ont depuis réintégré la vie civile. J'explore les dimensions surnaturelles du conflit et je soutiens que les femmes étaient des agents de leur propre survie, car elles ont appris à manipuler leurs conditions physiques et cosmologiques, à la fois pendant et après leur captivité. En marge des débats de la justice transitionnelle, les femmes négocient leurs propres souvenirs au sein d'un réseau complexe de la religiosité. Bien forcées de se marier, de devenir mères, et d’être des soldats; rentrées à des vies marquées par la stigmatisation, le patriarcat, et la pauvreté, elles sont quand même des personnes complexes qui défient les tropes «d’esclave sexuelle» et «d’enfant soldat». 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To say that this work is the product of many contributors would be a tremendous understatement. A thesis about stories is nothing without people to tell them, and as such I am first and foremost deeply grateful to the many Ugandan women who were generous with their time and trust. I sincerely hope that you are satisfied with my interpretations of your experiences. I owe thanks to several friends and colleagues in Uganda who opened up their homes, offices, minds and hearts in order to help my research run as smoothly as possible. Jessica Huber of the American Refugee Committee graciously provided me with housing and friendship in Gulu Town, Amony Emely managed to save me in the kitchen when I mistakenly invited an entire neighbourhood to supper, and Hayden Aaronson (ACDI/VOCA) was always around to provide much needed comic relief. I was also dependent on the friendship of and sage advice from my former colleagues at the Justice and Reconciliation Project, particularly Anyeko Ketty, Owor Ogora Lino, Ojok Boniface, Julian Hopwood, and Komakech Emon. Thank you for your patience, help and encouragement! The staff members at Gulu District NGO Forum were always willing to lend me a helping hand, while Otim Michael of the International Center for Transitional Justice provided encouragement in my explorations. Aber Janet and Acan Grace of MOSWACO aided me in making contact with peer support groups. Your compassion and courage are inspiring. His Highness Rwot David Onen Acana II was supportive and welcoming, while Agwoka Sophie of Ker Kwaro Acholi kindly guided my efforts to meet with Acholi elders. The Rev. Fr. Okumu Joseph (BOSCO Uganda) and Achan Alice (Christian Counselling Fellowship) both made time for me in their hectic schedules, patiently answering my questions and engaging me in fruitful discussion. I thank you. I am additionally thankful to Theresa McElroy (University of British Columbia) and Atim Stella who introduced me to my skilful and diligent interpreters, Akumu Florence and Achoka Millie Grace. You are all wonderful teachers, excellent researchers, and delightful friends. Akello Susan and Okee Christine helped me when I needed last-minute interpretation; it was always much appreciated. Thank you to Jessie Anderson (George Washington University) and Lara Rosenoff (University of British Columbia) for good company and great conversation. Back home in Canada, I relied heavily on friends, family, and colleagues to remind me that my work was not yet over and that I was in fact capable of completing the task at hand. My parents, Ian and Cathy Victor of Victoria, BC, have acted as nothing less than my own personal cheerleading team; though I wish you would take off that skirt, Dad. I am truly thankful that you have never questioned my (sometimes ridiculous) decisions in this process, stoically accepting that, by going to Uganda, I was merely fulfilling the Victor family motto (Big Balls, No Manners). In Vancouver, my sister Rachel Victor, brother Dan Victor and sister-in-law Jennifer Menard Victor held my hand across the continents each time they phoned me, not 3 minding that there was often not much more on the other end than a whimper. Thanks for being everything that a big brother and sisters are supposed to be, and more. To Danièle Carrara, Leigh Patterson, and Vivian Wong, thank you for tolerating my constant absence. I am especially indebted to Dr. Erin Baines (Justice and Reconciliation Project and Liu Institute for Global Issues, University of British Columbia) who introduced me to Uganda, both intellectually and literally. It never ceases to amaze me that I ended up traveling through rural IDP camps in northern Uganda, when all you had asked me to do was order some catering for a meeting in Vancouver. You are a fantastic scholar and a cherished mentor. In Montréal and Morin-Heights, Qc, I am tremendously thankful for Emily Victor and Gino Capozzi, Anna Victor and Nicolas Korfage, who shared their love, laughter, food, and wine. To Alice, Eva, Lukas, and Andrew (who aren’t quite sure yet where or what Africa is), thank you for keeping your auntie grounded by demanding nothing more than bedtime stories. At McGill, I am grateful to my supervisor, Professor Ronald Niezen, who trusted my judgement and patiently waited for the results. I am additionally thankful to John Galaty and the members of STANDD for feedback on early drafts. To my friends and fellow students housed at the Project on Indigenous Rights and Identity and in Peterson Hall, I will miss your camaraderie and support. I am especially grateful to Jessika Tremblay, who cleverly designed a panopticon that ensured I was actually working across the table from her. Truly, you would make Foucault proud. In the Department of Geography, I owe thanks to Alexandre Corriveau-Bourque, Natalie Kaiser, and Matthew Pritchard, who graciously shared their workspace when I could no longer stomach the sight of my own, while Gillian Gregory was always available for a pep talk and a cup of tea. Your hugs and confidence in me helped immensely. Dr. Gretchen Bakke and the students in the dissertation-writing seminar provided invaluable comments, criticisms, and support when I most needed it. Gretchen, you are an amazing teacher. Lastly, my research would not have been possible without the generous financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and the Project on Indigenous Rights and Identity Thesis Completion Award. Thank you very much, merci beaucoup, and apwoyo matek. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 2 RÉSUMÉ ............................................................................................................................ 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 7 I. UNDERSTANDING AGENCY .................................................................................. 9 a.) Violence and Representation ................................................................................ 10 b.) Storytelling ........................................................................................................... 12 II. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 13 a.) Research Subjects ................................................................................................. 14 b.) Language and Interpretation ................................................................................. 15 c.) Participant Observation ........................................................................................ 16 d.) Qualitative Interviews and Stories ....................................................................... 17 e.) The Trouble with Manners ..................................................................................