Strategies of intervention in protracted violent conflicts by civil society actors: the example of interventions in the violent conflicts in the area of former Yugoslavia Schweitzer, C. Submitted version deposited in CURVE May 2011 Original citation: Schweitzer, C. (2009) Strategies of intervention in protracted violent conflicts by civil society actors: the example of interventions in the violent conflicts in the area of former Yugoslavia. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Coventry: Coventry University. Copyright © and Moral Rights are retained by the author. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This item cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Two illustrations and one map have been removed from this thesis due to third party copyright. The unabridged version of the thesis can be viewed at the Lanchester Library, Coventry University. CURVE is the Institutional Repository for Coventry University http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open Strategies of Intervention in Protracted Violent Conflicts by Civil Society Actors The Example of Interventions in the Violent Conflicts in the Area of Former Yugoslavia, 1990 – 2002 Christine Schweitzer A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the University’s requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2009 Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies Business School Coventry University Abstract 3 Abstract This thesis seeks to contribute to the understanding of conflict intervention in protracted violent conflicts by studying the activities of civil society actors in regard to the conflicts in what was Yugoslavia until 1991. A very broad understanding of ‘intervention’ is used for this purpose that includes all kinds of activities that relate to the conflicts. Based on a survey of activities in the period between 1990 and 2002, a framework for categorising and describing these interventions is applied according to basic functions in four ‘grand strategies’ of ‘peace-making’, ‘peace-keeping’, ‘peace- building’, and ‘information, support, protest and advocacy’, with a total list of about 230 instruments of conflict intervention identified. The study concludes that civil society actors played three different basic roles: They complemented the work of state actors, they were the avant-garde for approaches, strategies and methods that later became ‘mainstream’ in conflict intervention, and in some cases, they were able to control or correct actions by governments through advocacy or direct action. The development of instruments of civil conflict transformation received a massive boost through this engagement in the 1990s. The study supports the position taken recently by some researchers making comparative studies of cases of conflict intervention regarding the limited role played by dialogue and reconciliation work in regard to dealing with the overall conflicts: In spite of ‘reconciliation’ and inter-ethnic cooperation being at the core of the vast majority of all projects and programmes undertaken in the area, indicators of real impact regarding an overall positive change in society and prevention of future violence seem to be rather weak. The study further observes that there was a social movement developed relating to former Yugoslavia in many Western countries that in a hitherto unknown way combined traditional methods of protest and advocacy with concrete work in the field. Abstract 4 Contents 5 Contents Abstract 3 Contents 5 Acknowledgements 12 Tables 13 Acronyms 14 1. Introduction 17 1.1 Goals and Scope of the Study 19 1.1.1 Objectives 19 1.1.1.1 Objective 1) Assess Assumptions Regarding Conflict Intervention 19 1.1.1.2 Objective 2) Suggest an inclusive framework for the categorisation of activities of conflict intervention 20 1.1.1.3 Objective 3) Document and Analyse the Activities of Civil Society 21 1.1.1.4 Objective 4) Develop an Inclusive List of Instruments of Conflict Intervention 21 1.1.2 Scope 21 1.2 Methodology 22 1.2.1 Literature and Sources 22 1.2.2 Research Steps and Methods Used 24 1.2.2.1 Collection and Codification of Data 24 1.2.2.2 (Re-)Categorisation of Data into ‘Grand Strategies’ 27 1.2.2.3 Writing-Up 29 1.3 Structure of the Thesis 29 2. Approaching Conflict Intervention: A Discussion of the Theoretical Basis 31 2.1 Basic Terminologies 31 2.1.1 Social Conflict and War 31 2.1.2 On the Concept of Strategy 32 2.1.3 Different Terms for Handling Conflict 34 2.1.4 Conflict Intervention 34 2.2 Overview Over Different Categorisations of Conflict Intervention 37 2.2.1 ‘Tool Chests’ and Categorisations by Function 37 2.2.2 Categorisations According to Conflict Stages 38 2.2.3 Multi-variant Models of Conflict Intervention 39 2.2.4 The Three ‘Grand’ Strategies 41 2.2.4.1 Peace-making 42 2.2.4.2 Peace-keeping 43 2.2.4.3 Peace-building 43 2.2.5 Possible Additions to the Three ‘Grand Strategies’ 46 Contents 6 2.2.5.1 Prevention and Early Warning 46 2.2.5.2 Peace Enforcement 48 2.2.5.3 Information, Support to Other Actors, Protest and Advocacy 49 2.2.5.4 A Widened Framework for Categorising Conflict Intervention 49 2.3 The Different Actors in Conflict Intervention 50 2.3.1 The Relationship of Interveners to the Conflict 50 2.3.2 Categories of External Actors 53 2.4 Conclusions 57 3. On the History of the Conflicts in the Former Yugoslavia 59 3.1 Yugoslavia until 1991 59 3.2 The Beginning of the End: the Wars in Slovenia and Croatia and Their Aftermaths 61 3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina: No Time for Real Independence 64 3.4 From the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia through the Federal Republic Yugoslavia to Serbia and Montenegro 67 3.5 Kosovo: From Autonomy in Serbia Through ‘Kosmet’ to War and Becoming a Protectorate 69 3.6 Macedonia: From an Example of ‘Working Prevention’ to Armed Uprising 72 3.7 Conclusion 73 4. The Main Interventions by Governments and International Organisations 79 4.1 The Use of Peace-making Instruments 79 4.1.1 Peace-making by Law 79 4.1.2 Peace-making by Negotiation 80 4.1.2.1 The Structures of Negotiation Diplomacy 80 4.1.2.2 The Contents of Negotiation Diplomacy 810 4.1.3 The Role of Violence and Power 84 4.1.3.1 The Sanctions 84 4.1.3.2 The Use of Military Means 87 4.1.3.3 The Relationship Between Conflict Stage and Degree of Force Used 91 4.1.4 Peace-making: A Picture of Mixed Results 92 4.2 The Use of Peace-keeping Instruments 95 4.2.1 Military Peace-keeping Missions 95 4.2.2 Civilian Peace-keeping 100 4.2.3 Peace-keeping: Another Picture of Mixed Results 104 4.3 The Use of Peace-building Instruments 104 4.3.1 Peace-building Activities By State Actors 105 4.3.1.1 Humanitarian Relief 105 4.3.1.2 Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration of Soldiers (‘DDR’) 106 4.3.1.3 Physical Reconstruction and Refugee Return 107 Contents 7 4.3.1.4 Social and Psycho-social Work 108 4.3.1.5 Economic Recovery 108 4.3.1.6 Transitional Justice 110 4.3.1.7 State-building, Democratisation and Civil Society Support 111 4.3.1.8 Peace and Dialogue 114 4.3.1.9 Cultural Activities 114 4.3.2 International Administration (‘Protectorates’) 114 4.3.2.1 UNTAES 115 4.3.2.2 International Administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina 115 4.3.2.3 Kosovo 116 4.3.3 Peace-building: How much is enough? 117 4.4 Addressing Other External Actors: Protest and Advocacy 118 4.5 Prevention 119 4.6 Conclusions 122 5. Working Towards a Settlement of Conflict: Peace-making by Civil Society Actors 125 5.1 Top Level Peace-making 126 5.1.1 Jimmy Carter in Bosnia-Herzegovina 126 5.1.2 Communità di Sant’Egidio in Kosovo 127 5.2 Middle Level Peace-making 129 5.2.1 Problem-solving Workshops 129 5.2.2 Supporting the Political Opposition 131 5.2.2.1 Verona Forum 131 5.2.2.2 Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly 132 5.2.3 Seeking to Influence the Conflict Parties Through Suggesting 134 Solutions 5.3 Grassroots Level Peace-making 135 5.4 Conclusions 136 6. Preventing and Stopping Violence: Peace-keeping by Civil Society Actors 139 6.1 An Organisation with a Longer-Term Peace-keeping Mandate: The Balkan Peace Team 140 6.2 Projects Assuming Peace-keeping Roles Incidentally in Certain Situations 143 6.3 Short-term Inter-positioning Projects 144 6.3.1 Inter-positioning in the Bosnian War 145 6.3.2 Inter-positioning in Kosovo 148 6.3.3 Relationship to Other Actors 148 6.4 Conclusions 149 7. Dealing with the Causes and Consequences of Violence: Peace-building by Civil Society Actors 153 7.1 Humanitarian Relief 153 7.1.1 Material Humanitarian Aid 154 7.1.2 Sheltering Refugees and Displaced 156 Contents 8 7.1.2.1 The Overall Picture 156 7.1.2.2 Helping People to Escape 157 7.1.3 Summary: Relief Work - Almost a Social Movement 158 7.2 Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) of Combatants 158 7.3 Reconstruction and Refugee Return 159 7.3.1 The Overall Picture 159 7.3.2 ‘Social Reconstruction’ and Other Projects With Complex Mandates 159 7.3.2.1 ‘Social Reconstruction’ in Pakrac 159 7.3.2.2 Social Reconstruction’ and Other Complex Projects in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo 163 7.3.3 Summary: Reconstruction Work - A Highly Conflict-sensitive Task 164 7.4 Social and Psycho-social Work 165 7.4.1 Social Support For Refugees in Camps 166 7.4.2 Youth Work 167 7.4.3 Psycho-social Assistance 169 7.4.4 Summary: Social and Psycho-social Work - Between Good Will and Professionalism 172 7.5 Economic Recovery 173 7.6 Transitional Justice and Human