StatePowerPODLITH.qxd 5/27/08 12:18 PM Page 1 International Relations | African Studies Kalu “Kalu N. Kalu’s State Power, Autarchy, and Political Conquest in Nigerian Federalism boldly challenges the established wisdom that ethnicity drives conflict and holds back Nigeria, pushing us instead to look at what he sees as the structural defects in the Nigerian federation.This timely book offers an extensive survey of the literatures on Kalu N. Kalu Nigerian history, political economy, democracy, political culture, and ethno-religious conflicts to give us multiple perspectives on the multifaceted problems preventing progress in Nigerian political development.Through this, Kalu gives readers much to Autarchy, and Political State Power, consider on what the proper crafting of political institutions would entail if democracy Conquest in Nigerian Federalism is to survive in Nigeria, with implications for Africa writ large. Constitutional scholars will find Kalu’s line-by-line commentary on the Nigerian Constitution of particular interest.” —Darren Kew, assistant professor, University of Massachusetts–Boston State Power, Autarchy, and Political Conquest in Nigerian Federalism shows how specific historical events and societal forces within Nigeria transcend the choices its political State Power, Autarchy, leaders have made to influence the course of the state’s political development. Kalu N. Kalu describes a variety of factors that have contributed to the challenges facing state-building and political institutions in Nigeria. Chief among them are the nature of interest aggregation, the dynamics of conflict, and the patterns of state intervention in matters dealing with secularism, distributive politics, economy, security, and autonomy. and Political Conquest Of critical importance is a penetrating analysis of how state power could become too pervasive, and how emergent institutional designs can work against the very processes necessary for the construction of an enduring political ethos. in Nigerian Federalism Kalu succeeds in constructing a more organic conception of political development of Nigeria by creating a model based on rentier politics that captures the critical rela- tionship between state power and economy. By doing so, he goes beyond current scholarship about Nigeria and demonstrates the need for a restructuring of its insti- tutions, offering insight into an enduring narrative that continues to shape Nigerian politics. Kalu N. Kalu is associate professor of political science at Auburn University–Montgomery. For orders and information please contact the publisher Lexington Books A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN-13: 978-0-7391-1955-6 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 ISBN-10: 0-7391-1955-9 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 www.lexingtonbooks.com State Power, Autarchy, and Political Conquest in Nigerian Federalism State Power, Autarchy, and Political Conquest in Nigerian Federalism Kalu N. Kalu LEXINGTON BOOKS A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK LEXINGTON BOOKS A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, MD 20706 Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright © 2008 by Lexington Books All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kalu, Kalu Ndukwe. State power, autarchy, and political conquest in Nigerian federalism / Kalu N. Kalu. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7391-1955-6 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7391-1955-9 (cloth : alk. paper) eISBN-13: 978-0-7391-2992-0 eISBN-10: 0-7391-2992-9 1. Federal government—Nigeria. 2. Nigeria—Politics and government. I. Title. JQ3086.S8K35 2008 320.4669'049—dc22 2008009970 Printed in the United States of America ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. For my daughter Reneé Elizabeth Aluba Ndukwe Kalu Contents List of Figures and Tables ix List of Acronyms xi Political Map of Nigeria xiii Preface and Acknowledgments xv 1 Introduction: A Prolegomenon on State and Governance 1 2 Analytical Frameworks of State Formation 9 3 History and Evolutionary Schisms 33 4 Restless Federalism: Critical Arguments on Conflict and Governance 51 5 The Geopolitics of Religion: Conflated Origins of Ethnic Crisis 65 6 The Praetorian Orthodoxy: Pathways to Civic Soldiering 89 7 Rentier Politics: The Confluence of Power and Economics 121 8 The Garrison State: Bridging Civil-Military Transitions 145 9 Elections and Electioneering: On the Democratic Deficit 161 10 The Niger Delta: A Platform Under Duress 173 11 Constitutionalism and Political Development 187 vii viii Contents 12 Embedding African Democracy and Development: The Imperative of Institutional Capital 199 Appendix A: Roll Call and Votes on 2007 Presidential Elections 219 Appendix B: Note from Robert A. Dahl, Renowned Political Scientist of the Twenty-first Century 223 Appendix C: Basic Pitfalls of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution: A Commentary of Selected Sections (as Abbreviated) 225 Bibliography 283 Index 297 About the Author 309 Figures and Tables FIGURES 7.1 The Rentier Space: A Phenomenon at the Intersection of Power and Economics 134 7.2 Lacking Fuel for Cooking 138 7.3 Correlation Between Changes in Oil Price and Economic Freedom 140 9.1 INEC Electoral Results, 2007 163 9.2 Stolen Ballot Papers Scattered along a Bush Path 164 10.1 A Deadly Mix of Toxic Smoke and Gas Flares Darkens the Sky in the Niger Delta 176 TABLES 6.1 Trajectory of Praetorian Rule in Nigeria, 1966–1999: From Inception to Decline 97 6.2 Contrasting Paradigms: The Old Professionalism of External Defense, the New Professionalism of Internal Security and National Development 107 8.1 Dimensions of Political and Military Leadership in Nigeria, 1966–2007 148 ix x Figures and Tables 8.2 Nigeria: Democracy, Subjective Indicators of Governance, 2000–2001 154 8.3 Nigeria: Rule of Law and Government Effectiveness, Subjective Indicators of Governance, 2000–2001 155 8.4 Nigeria: Political Participation, Objective Indicators of Governance, 2000–2001 155 8.5 Nigeria: Human Development Index, Objective Indicators of Governance, 2000–2001 155 8.6 Nigeria: Flows of Aid, Private Capital, and Debt, Human Development Indicators Rank (148) 156 12.1 Modal Regimes by Country, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1989 205 12.2 Transition Outcomes, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1994 206 List of Acronyms AC Action Congress AFRICOM Africa Command AG Action Group ANPP All Nigeria People Party ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations COR Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers States EFCC Economic and Financial Crimes Commission GNP Gross National Product IMF International Monetary Fund INEC Independent National Electoral Commission JDZ Joint Development Zone MAMSER Mass Mobilization for Social Justice, Self Reliance, and Economic Recovery MASSOB Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra MEND Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta MOSEIN Movement for the Survival of Ijaw Ethnic Nationality MOSOP Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People MSM Mid-West State Movement MZL Middle Zone League NADECO National Democratic Coalition NCNC National Council of Nigerian Citizens NDC Niger Delta Congress NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission NDPVF Niger Delta Peoples Volunteer Force xi xii List of Acronyms NDV Niger Delta Vigilante NDVS Niger Delta Volunteer Force NEPU Nigerian Elements Progressive Union NLC Nigerian Labor Congress NNA Nigerian National Alliance NNDP Nigerian National Democratic Party NNOC Nigerian National Oil Corporation NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NPC Northern People’s Congress NUPENG National Union of Petroleum and Natural Gas Workers OPC Odua People’s Congress OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OGJ Oil and Gas Journal PDP Peoples Democratic Party PENGASSAN Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria PPAC Presidential Policy Advisory Committee PSCs Production Sharing Contracts SDPC Shell Petroleum Development Corporation TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command UMBC United Middle Belt Congress UPGA United Progressive Grand Alliance WAI War Against Indiscipline Political Map of Nigeria Political Map of Nigeria. Area: 923,766 sq. km. Capital: Abuja xiii Preface and Acknowledgments he inspiration for this project began in 1997 while I was studying as a Tpostdoctoral fellow in the Department of Political Science at Yale Uni- versity and continued throughout my period as a research affiliate at the Council on African Studies/the MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies, Yale. The initial profile and structure began to develop over the course of several lectures in two courses that I audited: Contemporary Political Theory, which was taught by Vittorio Buffacci who was then a vis- iting professor in the Yale Department of Political Science, and Compara- tive Politics, which was taught by Yale Sterling Professor William Foltz, in the fall of 1997 and spring 1998, respectively. Out of these two courses, two important