Sacral Landscapes: Narratives of the Megalith in North Western Europe Jeff Sanders Ph.D. Thesis The University of Edinburgh January 2007 Statement of Originality I declare that this thesis is my own work Jeff Sanders January 2007 Acknowledgements A number of people have been of invaluable help during the writing of this thesis. I would firstly like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Magda Midgley, for guidance and inspiration. My family also deserve special mention for their support, encouragement and understanding. Devon McHugh proof read the entire thesis and improved the clarity (and grammar) immeasurably. I am also grateful for the stream of tea, books, sympathy and ideas from my office mates Megan Jones, Vasiliki Koutrafouri and Erin Osborne-Martin. Thanks must also go to my flatmates, past and present, and friends, for making Edinburgh such an enjoyable place to study in. ontents List of illustrations 1 Abstract 3 Part I Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 5 1.2 Caspar David Friedrich and the Romantic Movement 7 1.3 Cross in the Mountains 10 1.4 Meaningful Landscapes 16 Chapter 2: Aims and Objectives 2.1 Thesis Statement 26 2.2 Reasons for Choice of Area 28 2.3 Archaeology as Archaeology 30 2.4 Archaeology as Anthropology 36 2.5 Archaeology as History 40 2.6 The Nature of Archaeology 43 2.7 Induction versus Deduction 46 2.8 The Structuralist Legacy 47 2.9 Ethnographic Parallels 49 2.10 Models within Archaeology 52 Chapter 3: Assumptions and Constants 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Assumptions 57 3.2.1 Time 57 3.2.2 Uniformitarianism 68 3.2.3 The Archaeological Record 70 3.2.4 Universals 72 3.3 Constants 73 3.3.1 Absolute Dating 73 3.3.2 Causation 73 3.3.3 The Material Record 74 3.3.4 Change 75 Chapter 4: Terminology 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Implications of Terminology 78 4.3 Culture 80 4.4 Type 82 4.5 The Sacral 84 4.6 Regionality 85 4.7 Personhood 87 4.7 Style 89 Chapter 5: Annaliste and Social Theory 5.1 The Annaliste tradition 93 5.1.1 Choice of Approach 93 5.1.2 Introduction 95 5.1.3 Annaliste Influence within Archaeology 95 5.1.4 Benefits 97 5.1.5 Disadvantages 100 5.1.6 Discussion 102 5.2 Sociological approach 104 5.2.1 Introduction 104 5.2.2 Selected Influence of Social Theory 106 5.2.3 Bourdieu 107 5.2.4 The Generative Model 117 5.2.5 Discussion 120 5.3 Conclusion 121 5.3.1 Summary 121 Part II Chapter 6: Choice of Area 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 Archaeological Types 133 6.3 Barriers and Possibilities 134 6.4 Culture and Nature 141 6.5 Kilmartin Valley 145 6.6 Drenthe Plateau 160 6.7 Morbihan 171 6.9 Chronological Schemes 186 Chapter 7: Past Approaches Analysed 7.1 Introduction 217 7.2 Histories of Research: Greenwell and Lukis 219 7.3 Paradigms 226 7.4 Underlying Themes 240 7.5 Recurring Themes 246 Chapter 8: Application of Approach 8.1 Introduction 257 8.2 Generative Modelling 259 8.3 La Longue Durée, Conjonctures and Événements 291 8.4 Mentalité 299 8.5 Archaeological aesthetics 306 Chapter 9: Conclusions and Future Work 9.1 Introduction 310 9.2 Problems and Solutions 311 9.3 Identifying Mentalité 313 9.5 Conclusions 314 9.6 Future Work 317 Bibliography 320 List of illustrations Figure 1.1: Cross in the Mountains 23 Figure 1.2: Winter Landscape with Church 23 Figure 1.3: Chasseur in the Forest 24 Figure 1.4: Cloister Cemetery in the Snow 24 Figure 1.5: Cromlech in the Snow 25 Figure 2.1: Structural similarity between anthropology and archaeology 55 Figure 2.2: Relationship between different levels of archaeological activity 55 Figure 5.1: Braudel‘s model of time applied to structures available to prehistory 125 Figure 5.2: Relationship of Structure to Practice 126 Figure 5.3: Bourdieu‘s Generative Model 126 Figure 5.4: Generative Model as Applied to Hodder‘s concepts of Domus and Agrios . 126 Figure 6.1: Map of the three areas discussed 194 Figure 6.2: Map of the Kilmartin area 195 Figure 6.3: Distribution of chambered cairns and early monuments 196 Figure 6.4: Plan of Temple Wood stone circles 197 Figure 6.5: Distribution of standing stones 198 Figure 6.6: Distribution of Bronze Age cairns and ”linear cemetery‘ 199 Figure 6.7: Distribution of cist burials and inserted cists 200 Figure 6.8: Distribution of stone decoration 201 Figure 6.9: Selected artefacts discovered in Kilmartin 202 Figure 6.10: Distribution of surviving human and animal bone 203 Figure 6.11: Map of the Netherlands and sites mentioned in the text 204 Figure 6.12: Distribution of Hunebedden 205 Figure 6.13: Plan of hunebed D43 Schimmeres 206 Figure 6.14: Plan of hunebedden D6e Tynaarlo and G1 Noordlaren 207 Figure 6.15: Distribution of tertes tumulaires and tumulus carnaşeens 208 Figure 6.16: Distribution and inventory of known passage graves 209 Figure 6.17: Distribution of a) earlier and b) later passage graves 210 Figure 6.18: Plan of Petit Mont 211 Figure 6.19: Distribution of the principal a) individual and small groups of menhirs 212 and b) stone circles, cromlechs and alignments Figure 6.20: Passage grave motifs 213 Figure 6.21: Chronology of activity at Kilmartin valley 214 Figure 6.22: Chronology of activity at the Drenthe Plateau 215 Figure 6.23: Chronology of activity at Southern Morbihan 216 Figure 7.1: Timeline of events and publications in lives of Greenwell and Lukis 253 Figure 7.2: Important factors contributing to creation and acceptance of Thomsen‘s scheme 254 Figure 7.3: Timeline of important events contemporary to Greenwell and Lukis 255 Figure 7.4: Key elements affecting archaeological work during the mid to late 19 th century 256 Figure 8.1: General application of generative model 261 Figure 8.2: Generative model of ”house of the dead‘ principle 263 Figure 8.3: Generative model of ”the rise of the individual‘ principle 269 Figure 8.4: Generative model of the ”noble savage‘ principle 274 Figure 8.5: Generative model of the ”relationship between timber and stone‘ principle 278 Figure 8.6: Generative model of the ”sacral movement‘ principle 281 Figure 8.7: Generative model of the ”sexual metaphor‘ principle 283 Figure 8.8: Generative model of the ”agricultural metaphor‘ principle 285 Figure 8.9: Generative model of the ”culture and nature‘ principle 287 Figure 8.10: Generative model of the ”applied motifs‘ principle 288 Figure 8.11: Generative model of the ”prehistoric knowledge production‘ principle 290 Abstract The construction of archaeological narrative is influenced by a number of factors. Some come from within disciplinary boundaries, whilst others are traced from the wider influences of social, cultural or academic contexts. This thesis examines three areas identified as Neolithic ”landscapes‘, all of which have been the subject of archaeological investigation since the 19 th century. The history of research of these areas allows an evaluation of how these disparate influences interact. In this way, the three landscapes act as an arena in which to explore aspects of the archaeological approach itself. This leads to a critical examination of the interpretative tools available to the archaeologist. How concepts such as ”landscape‘ are formed and affect discourse is explored. Wider themes of demarcation, typology and the underlying assumptions of research are investigated in relation to the interpretation of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age of North Western Europe. The large span of time that these periods encompass allows exploration of change from the short to very long term, although this is not always utilised within archaeological accounts. The treatment of time is therefore considered in conjunction with explanations of change in prehistory. A powerful approach to time is suggested by combining aspects of the work of Pierre Bourdieu and Fernand Braudel and the potential for this is evaluated against the archaeological record of the three areas. How the assumptions of the archaeological approach are acted out within the historiography of each area highlights a number of recurring metaphors that are used to interpret the material record. These promote a portrayal of Neolithic life that combines with the range of influences from the history of archaeology itself to promote an idea of the prehistoric mentalité . A very durable and underlying type that constantly resurfaces in these accounts is the idea of the ”sacral landscape‘, which is the central topic of this thesis. Part I 4 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction At first glance, an archaeological analysis of landscape seems far removed from the work of the German painter Casper David Friedrich (1774-1840). His most celebrated piece, the Tetschener Altar or Cross in the Mountains is around two hundred years old and is thus far removed from modern archaeology. However, Friedrich worked in a period during which the main strands of archaeology were being formed. Through Friedrich‘s paintings we can trace the important social, political and intellectual themes that had an impact upon the early practitioners of archaeology and in turn shaped the epistemological basis for their, and our, archaeological record. Working as a part of the Romantic Movement, Friedrich‘s paintings encapsulated a new relationship with landscape. Spirituality and religion, in this instance non-conformist, are intimately connected with landscape features in Friedrich‘s work. Local ruins, decay and ”Gothic‘ subjects are selected over traditional Classical compositions, reflecting a growing nationalistic awareness of the potential of indigenous heritage, felt particularly acutely in Friedrich‘s native Germany.