conversion to judaism 205 CHAPTER NINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY 1. Introduction In the latter part of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth century, much scholarship, especially in Germany, insisted that Juda- ism, particularly when Hadrian forbade circumcision in the second century, but not restricted to that period, was not interested in gaining converts.1 In fact, Judaism was said to be hostile to such attempts. Such scholarship was often based on hidden agenda, namely to prove that Christianity, which eagerly sought proselytes, was therefore supe- rior to Judaism. Others, such as Dieter Georgi,2 who goes so far as to assert that Jews were active missionaries, explain the development of Jewish proselytism in the context of an emerging universalism in Judaism itself and as preparation for Christian missionary activity. As for Jewish scholars, they were often influenced by the long-time prevailing attitude of thoroughly discouraging proselytism. Just prior to World War II, the Reform Judaism movement in the United States considered the possibility of seeking out converts. Two works of scholarship that appeared at that time concluded that Judaism in the Talmudic period was favorably disposed toward proselytes and indeed sought after them eagerly.3 But most studies of the subject by Jewish scholars are influenced by or at least try to explain away the current Orthodox Jewish aversion to seeking converts. The author of this paper wishes to stress that, in contrast to his earlier view,4 he does not find evidence of missionary activity, let 1 The literature on the subject of proselytism by Jews in antiquity is enormous. See the bibliography listed in Feldman 1992, 553-54, n. l. To this list the following may be added: Barclay 1996; Georgi 1986); Goodman 1994a; McKnight 1998; Porton 1994; and Reynolds and Tannenbaum 1987. 2 Georgi 1986. 3 Bamberger 1939; Braude 1940. 4 See Feldman 1992d. 206 chapter nine alone organized missionary activity, by Jews in the Hellenistic-Roman period (in fact, we do not know the name of a single Jewish mission- ary who systematically sought converts to classical Judaism during this period, nor do we know the title of a single tract that has as its goal the conversion of non-Jews to Judaism); but he does seek to show that Jews during this period were open to those who wished to convert, and that many, perhaps even very many, did convert. This paper attempts to establish two points: first, that there was a tremendous increase in the number of Jews between the time of the destruction of the First Temple in 586 b.c.e. and the first century c.e., both in the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora; and secondly, that there is considerable evidence that Judaism, especially in the period from the second century b.c.e. to the first century c.e., was open to converts and that there is considerable evidence that many did indeed convert, both in the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora. A good deal of the thesis depends upon the reliability of Josephus, who is a key source for population figures. Since much of the increase in population apparently occurred in the Land of Israel, an important part of the argument will be a consideration of the question as to how many people the Land could support in those days. 2. The Number of Jews in 586 b.c.e. Salo Baron, whose greatest specialty was estimating Jewish popu- lations through the ages, begins his article, “Population,”5 with a strong statement of caution: “Because of the great difficulties in ascertaining human population data in general, and Jewish data in particular, especially in ancient and medieval times, a word of caution is even more necessary here than in most other areas of historical and sociological research.” Baron cites the report of Carlo Cippola and his associates to the International Congress of Historical Sci- ences that “in the eyes of demographers bent on scientific precision and certainty all demographic research undertaken for any period before the eighteenth century runs the risk of appearing as a mere fantasy.” Nonetheless, he adds, population statistics are too vital for the understanding of all other socioeconomic, political, and even intel- 5 Baron 1971..