Foreign Language Anxiety in an Intermediate Arabic Reading Course: A Comparison of Heritage and Foreign Language Learners Dissertation: Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Dima Alghothani, B.A., M.Ed Graduate Program of Education The Ohio State University 2010 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Alan Richard Hirvela, Advisor Dr. Mariko Haneda Dr. Keiko Samimy Copyright by Dima Alghothani 2010 Abstract This mixed-methods, qualitative dominant study investigated the issue of foreign language anxiety in an intermediate Arabic reading course. The first, quantitative phase of the study collected data from twenty-two students using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and the Foreign Language Reading Scale (FLRAS) as well as a background questionnaire. The second, qualitative phase collected data from five participants: three Foreign Language Learners (FLLs) and two Heritage Language Learners (HLLs) via interviews, classroom observations, and participant journals. The nature of the anxiety that both types of learners experienced varied due to their differing backgrounds. Although the HLLs had lower scores on the FLCAS and FLRAS in comparison to the FLLs, they still experienced anxiety that was at times debilitating. Furthermore, the qualitative data shows that the low levels of anxiety that the HLLs felt may have been a disadvantage to them, as it prevented them from feeling a type of facilitating anxiety, associated with emotionality rather than worry (Scovel, 1978), that may have motivated them to put forth more effort and achieve what they were truly capable of. These findings reiterate the importance of qualitative data, particularly when examining a phenomenon as complex as foreign language anxiety. ii Dedication Dedicated to my children Iman and Malek iii Acknowledgements Many individuals have been instrumental in making this dissertation a reality; however, without the divine help of God Almighty, it would not have been possible. Thank you, God, the most Beneficent and Merciful, for making my dream a reality and making my journey an easier one. Next, I would like to thank my mother, father, and siblings who have been my inspiration and motivation. They have encouraged and supported me throughout my studies and dissertation, and I am forever grateful to them. I also owe many thanks to my two young children, Iman and Malek, who were very patient with me throughout the entire process. They put up with endless hours of my writing, and without their patience, I would not have been able to complete this dissertation. My sincere thanks go out to you, my beloved children, and I promise to make life more exciting after this! Thanks also go out to you, my dear husband, for giving me the emotional support I needed to be strong enough to finish. In addition to my gratitude for the tremendous support and love that my family has given me, I am also indebted to my advisor, Dr. Alan Hirvela, who has been a wonderful mentor to me. Thank you for giving me the help and guidance that I needed to complete this dissertation. My appreciation also goes out to my committee members, Dr. Keiko Samimy and Dr. Mariko Haneda. iv Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to both the participants in this study as well as the course instructor who was gracious enough to give me complete access to his classroom the entire quarter. My research would not have been possible without his great kindness. Lastly, heartfelt thanks go out to the five participants who shared with me their personal language learning experiences. It is my hope that their voices are heard loud and clear by those in the field of foreign and second language education. v Vita June 1998………..........Upper Arlington High School June 2002…………......B.A. Spanish and Arabic The Ohio State University June 2003……………..M.Ed Foreign & Second Language Education (Spanish & Arabic) The Ohio State University 2003-2007………….…Middle & High School Spanish Teacher Columbus Public Schools 2006………………….Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) Endorsement 2007-2009…………….Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowship Recipient Fields of Study Major Field: Education vi Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....ii Dedication…………………………………………………………………………....…...iii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….........iv Vita………………………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………..……………….....x List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….……...xii Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………...….…1 1.1 Introduction……………………………………………................……………1 1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………..…………………………….3 1.3 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………..………..10 1.4 Research Questions……………………………………………………..……10 1.5 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………….11 1.6 Definition of Key Terms…………………………………………………….13 1.7 Assumptions of Study…………………………………………………….….16 1.8 Limitations of Study…………………………………………….…………...17 Chapter 2: Review of Literature…………………………………………………...…….18 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………….....18 2.2 Affect in Language Learning……………………………………………...…19 2.3 Establishment of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)…………………...……20 2.4 Effects of FLA on Language Learning………………………………………22 2.5 FLA: Cause or Result of Poor Language Achievement?.................................26 2.6 FLA and Language Skills……………………………………………………30 2.7 FLA and Individual Factors…………………………………………….……36 2.8 Teaching Arabic………………………………………………………..…….40 2.9 Diglossia in Arabic……………………………………………………….….40 2.10 Reading Models………………………………………………………….…47 2.11 First (L1) and Second (L2) Language Reading……………………….……49 2.12 First Language (L1) Reading in Arabic………………………………….…50 2.13 Second Language (L2) Reading in Arabic…………………………………56 2.14 Defining Heritage Language Learners (HLLs)……………………………..59 2.15 The Importance of Heritage Language Maintenance and Development...…65 2.16 Heritage Language Learners in the Foreign Language Classroom…………73 Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………83 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………….………….83 3.2 Research Questions……………………………………………….………….83 3.3 Research Design……………………………………………………….……..83 3.4 Case Studies………………………………………………………………….85 vii 3.5 Research Setting……………………………………………………………..85 3.6 Participants…………………………………………………………………...86 3.7 Data Collection Instruments……………………………………………..…..87 3.8 Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………….94 3.9 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………….…..96 3.10 Trustworthiness and Dependability……………………………..…….……99 Chapter 4: Results……………………………………………………………...……….101 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………..…………..101 4.2 Overview of Arabic 401 Class……………………………………………...101 4.3 Arabic 401 Textbook…………………………………………………….…104 4.4 Phase One………………………………………………………………...…105 4.5 Phase Two…………………………………………………………………..108 4.6 Oral Reading……………………………………………………………..…114 4.7 Diacritical Marks…………………………………………………..……….136 4.8 Reading Comprehension……………………………………………..……..151 4.9 Listening, Speaking, and Writing…………………………………….…….165 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………179 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………179 5.2 Summary of Quantitative Data………………………………………..……180 5.3 Summary of Qualitative Data………………………………………...…….184 5.4 Research Question 1(a)……………………………………………………..190 To what extent do FLLs experience anxiety in an intermediate Arabic reading course? 5.5 Research Questions 1(b)……………………………………………………194 What is the nature of that anxiety? 5.6 Research Question 2(a)…………………………………………………..…197 To what extent do HLLs experience anxiety in an intermediate Arabic reading course? 5.7 Research Question 2(b)………………………………………………….….200 What is the nature of that anxiety? 5.8 Emerging Themes……………………………………………………….….203 5.9 A Common Thread………………………………………………………....204 5.10 FLL Themes……………………………………………………………….206 5.11 HLL Themes………………………………………………………………213 5.12 Conclusions……………………………………………………………..…218 5.13 Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………….…225 5.14 Suggestions for Future Research………………………………………….233 5.15 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………....234 References………………………………………………………………………………240 Appendix A: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)……………….…254 Appendix B: Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS)…………………….257 viii Appendix C: Background Questionnaire……………………………………………….259 Appendix D: Recruitment Script……………………………………………………….260 Appendix E: Informed Consent Forms…………………………………………...…….261 Appendix F: IRB Approval……………………………………………………………..264 ix List of Tables Table 2.1: Reliabilities of the FLCAS in two studies (Aida, 1994, p.159)……………...23 Table 2.2: Sources of listening anxiety (Vogely, 1998, p. 69)……….……....………….33 Table 2.3: A comparison of the high and low varieties of a diglossic language………...42 Table 2.4: Different types of HLLs with appropriate foci of instruction (Carreira, 2004, p. 20)……………………………………………………………………………………….64 Table 2.5: Characteristics of HLLs and FLLs (Triantafillidou and Hedgcock, 2007, p. 14)………………………………………………………………………………………..80 Table 3.1: Participants in second phase………………………………………………….87 Table 3.2: Interview 1…………………………………………………………..………..92 Table 3.3: Interview 2……………………………………………………………………92 Table 3.4: Interview 3……………………………………………………..…………….93 Table 3.5: Summary of data collection…………………………………………………..96 Table 4.1: Summary of quantitative results…………………………………………….106 Table 4.2: Summary of information of five participants……………………….....……109 Table 4.3: Results of number 17 on FLRAS………………………………..…….……115