TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page iii Flax The genus Linum Edited by Alister D. Muir and Neil D. Westcott Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page iv First published 2003 by Taylor & Francis 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Taylor & Francis Inc, 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd Typeset in 11/12pt Garamond by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher nor the authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Flax : the genus linum / edited by Alister D. Muir and Neil D. Westcott. p. cm. — (Medicinal and aromatic plants—industrial profiles; v. 34) Includes bibliographical references (p. ). 1. Flax. 2. Flax—Therapeutic use. I. Muir, Alister D. II. Westcott, Neil D. III. Series. SB253 .F58 2003 583′.79—dc21 2002155288 ISBN 0-415-30807-0 Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page v Contents Contributors Preface to the series Preface 1 Introduction: history of the cultivation and uses of flaxseed MARION VAISEY-GENSER AND DIANE H. MORRIS 2 Cultivated flax and the genus Linum L.: Taxonomy and germplasm conservation AXEL DIEDERICHSEN AND KEN RICHARDS 3 Chemical studies on the constituents of Linum spp. NEIL D. WESTCOTT AND ALISTER D. MUIR 4 Cultivation of flax ANATOLY MARCHENKOV, TATIANA ROZHMINA, IGOR USCHAPOVSKY AND ALISTER D. MUIR 5 Principal diseases of flax KHALID Y. RASHID 6 Principal insect pests of flax IAN L. WISE AND JULIANA J. SOROKA 7 The contribution of α -linolenic acid in flaxseed to human health STEPHEN C. CUNNANE 8 The role of flaxseed lignans in hormone-dependent and independent cancer SHARON E. RICKARD-BON AND LILIAN U. THOMPSON 9 Flaxseed in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases KAILASH PRASAD Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page vi 10 Flaxseed and flaxseed lignans: Effects on the progression and severity of renal failure WILLIAM F. CLARK AND MALCOLM OGBORN 11 Mammalian metabolism of flax lignans ALISTER D. MUIR AND NEIL D. WESTCOTT 12 Flaxseed constituents and human health ALISTER D. MUIR AND NEIL D. WESTCOTT 13 Traditional food and medicinal uses of flaxseed N. LEE PENGILLY 14 Use of flaxseed in animal diets to create consumer products with modified fatty acid profiles SHEILA E. SCHEIDELER 15 Current market trends and economic importance of oilseed flax JOHN R. DEAN 16 Current regulatory status of flaxseed and commercial products ALISTER D. MUIR AND NEIL D. WESTCOTT Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page vii Contributors William F. Clark Diane H. Morris Department of Medicine President, Mainstream Nutrition The University of Western Ontario 904-130 Carlton St, Toronto London Health Sciences Center Ontario M5H 4K3 800 Commissioners Road East Canada London, Ontario N6A 4G5 Canada Alister D. Muir Bioproducts and Processing Stephen C. Cunnane Saskatoon Research Center Department of Nutritional Sciences Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada Faculty of Medicine 107 Science Place, Saskatoon FitzGerald Building Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 University of Toronto Canada 150 College Street, Toronto Ontario M5S 1A8 Malcolm Ogborn Canada Department of Pediatrics Winnipeg Children’s Hospital The University of Manitoba John R. Dean Winnipeg, Manitoba R3A 1S1 Agricore United Canada Box 6600, 201 Portage Avenue Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 3A7 Canada N. Lee Pengilly Saskatchewan Flax Development Commission Axel Diederichsen A5A 116 103rd Street, Saskatoon PGRC, Saskatoon Research Center Saskatchewan S7N 1Y7 Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada Canada 107 Science Place, Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 Kailash Prasad Canada Professor Emeritus Department of Physiology Anatoly Marchenkov College of Medicine All-Russian Flax Research Institute University of Saskatchewan (VNIIL), 35, Lunacharsgogo Str. 107 Wiggins Rd, Saskatoon, 172060 Torzhok Saskatchewan S7N E5E Russian Federation Canada Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 29/04/2003 12:04 PM Page viii Khalid Y. Rashid Lilian U. Thompson Morden Research Center Department of Nutritional Sciences Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada Faculty of Medicine Morden, Manitoba R6M 1Y5 University of Toronto Canada 150 College St., Toronto Ontario M5S 3E2 Canada Ken Richards PGRC, Saskatoon Research Center Igor Uschapovsky Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada All-Russian Flax Research Institute 107 Science Place, Saskatoon (VNIIL), 35, Lunacharsgogo Str. Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 172060 Torzhok Canada Russian Federation Sharon E. Rickard-Bon* Marion Vaisey-Genser Department of Nutritional Sciences Professor and Senior Scholar Faculty of Medicine Department of Human Nutritional University of Toronto Sciences 150 College St., Toronto Faculty of Human Ecology Ontario M5S 3E2 University of Manitoba, Winnipeg Canada Manitoba R3T 2N2 Canada Tatiana Rozhmina Neil D. Westcott All-Russian Flax Research Institute Bioproducts and Processing (VNIIL), 35, Lunacharsgogo Str. Saskatoon Research Center 172060 Torzhok Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada Russian Federation 107 Science Place, Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 Canada Sheila E. Scheideler Professor of Animal Science Institute of Agriculture and Ian L. Wise Natural Resources Breeding and Genetics University of Nebraska Lincoln Cereals Research Center Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0908 Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada USA 195 Dafoe Road, Winnipeg Manitoba R3T-2M9 Canada Juliana J. Soroka Ecological Pest Management *Current Address Saskatoon Research Center St. Joseph’s Care Group Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada 35 Algoma Street North 107 Science Place, Saskatoon P.O. Box 3251 Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5G7 Canada Canada Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis TGLA01 15/04/2003 2:34 PM Page ix Preface to the series There is increasing interest in industry, academia and the health sciences in medicinal and aromatic plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used by the public, many sciences are involved. This series brings together information which is currently scattered through an ever increasing number of journals. Each volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus, about which an area specialist has assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market trends and quality control. Many industries are involved such as forestry, agriculture, chemical, food, flavour, beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance. The plant’s raw materials are roots, rhizomes, bulbs, leaves, stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits and seeds. These yield gums, resins, essential (volatile) oils, fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts and spices for medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these commodities are traded worldwide. A dealer’s market report for an item may say ‘Drought in the country of origin has forced up prices’. Natural products do not mean safe products and account of this has to be taken by the above industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of plants which are approved for use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products. The assessment of safe-to-use starts with the harvested plant material which has to comply with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits of, radioactive material, heavy metals, aflatoxin, pesticide residue, as well as the required level of active principle. This analytical control is costly and tends to exclude small batches of plant material. Large scale contracted mechanised cultivation with designated seed or plantlets is now preferable. Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the plant’s ability to overcome disease, climatic stress and the hazards caused by mankind. Such methods as in vitro fertilization, meristem cultures and somatic embryogenesis are used. The transfer of sections of DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of some end-uses of the plant material. Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supply- ing organically-farmed medicinal plants, herbs and spices. The European Union direct- ive (CVO/EU No 2092/91) details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls to be carried out at all stages of production and processing of organic products. Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology leads to medicinal potential. Examples are the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison, curare, from species of Chondrodendron, and the anti-malarials derived from species of Cinchona and Artemisia. The methods of detection of pharmacological activity have