PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THE COLOURED COMMUNITY OF THE WESTERN CAPE, 1837-1966 BY FRANCOIS CLEOPHAS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY at the STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE FACULTY OF EDUCATION Promotor: PROF. F.J.G. VAN DER MERWE March 2015 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. __________________ FRANCOIS CLEOPHAS 12 FEBRUARY 2009 Copyright © 2015 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Prof Floris van der Merwe, my supervisor, for his scholarly guidance and expertise, as well as his endless patience with numerous readings of draft documents despite his full academic programme. I am also grateful to Prof Richard van der Ross, who accommodated my requests for interviews. A sincere thank you to Richard Dudley who shared his teaching experience as a political activist. A special word of appreciation is also due for the staff of the Genadendal Museum (Samuel Baadjies and Desiree Theodore) for t heir assistance and to Dr Isaac Balie for access to archival material. The staff of the National Library (Cape Town division) and the Centre for Education Conservation: Western Cape Education Department, for whom no request was unimportant and who showed interest throughout the research, further deserves special mention. A very special thank you to Dr. Cornelius Thomas of the University of Fort Hare for sharing his insights on the Teachers’ League of South Africa. I am also indebted to all the interviewees for their willingness to share their knowledge and experience, in particular Emelia du Toit, Mathilda Habelgaarn, Mathilda Ulster and William Wood, whom I had to interview more than once. The correspondence of Norman Stoffberg is also acknowledged in this regard. I appreciate the assistance of the Examination Department of the Western Cape Education Department for making their records available. I furthermore extend my sincere appreciation to Douglas Sylvester for the loan of his personal collection of Church Lads’ Brigade and Western Province Association of Physical Education Clubs material. The numerous telephone calls made to Fred O’ Neill, who unselfishly provided me with leads and vital information, added to the excitement of this study. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I am mindful of the contributions of Prof Barry Andrews for starting me off on a physical education career in the 1980s. I also thank Themba Ngwena for his eagerness and enthusiasm in working through archival documents with me. The many debates and discussions with Winston Kloppers on alternative views about Physical Education are also acknowledged. Finally, to Mona, my mother, who sacrificed so much for me and Fatima Small (neé Sulliman), my first teacher. ______________ F CLEOPHAS v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za SUMMARY Physical Education is a human movement activity driven by syllabi and educational programmes. Physical culture refers to human movement programmes with an entertainment component, but that also uses physical education activity. This study serves as an account of Physical Education and physical culture in the Coloured community of the Western Cape in the period 1837 to 1966. It offers a historical exploration of these activities in the social and political context and cuts across narrow definitions of race and class. The research also pays attention to the untold and unpleasant side of Physical Education. This necessitated tracing the origins of Physical Education and physical culture back to their European roots, because of the strong political and cultural links between South Africa and Europe. The Cape Coloured petty bourgeoisie urbanite minority of the 19th and early 20th century were eager but unable to infiltrate the ranks of middle class White society. They were acutely aware of the need to show respect towards White middle classes and also to distance them from the “unruly behaviour” of the working class. For this reason Physical Education and physical culture programmes became suitable means for the Coloured petty bourgeoisie to educate the “less fortunate” Coloured working class masses. The research is divided into six chapters. The first deals with contextual issues relating to the idea of Colouredness in South Africa and the implications for Physical Education and physical culture. This is amplified by an overview of the historical development of these subjects in Great Britain. Chapter two offers an extensive literature review that deals with Physical Education and physical culture in South Africa and centres around three themes: the omission of Coloured people in Physical Education history, Coloured marginalisation as a natural phenomenon and an analytical criticism of South African Physical Education. The third chapter identifies the historical-scientific method as the vehicle for research. It exposes the shortcomings of this method and presents possible ways to overcome these shortcomings. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Summary Chapter four discusses the practice and influence of missionary school teaching, the main source of education and therefore also the source of Physical Education for Coloured children. Chapter five focuses on the practices of Physical Education and physical culture in the broader Coloured community. It is demonstrated how Physical Education and physical culture practised outside the school context in the Coloured community operated within a code of conduct labelled “civilised behaviour”, with the hope of being accepted by White society. The concluding chapter captures the essence of Physical Education and physical culture practice in the Coloured community. It provides insight into racial and class intersection during two time periods when White racism dictated the practice. This gives reason to exercise caution against calls for the reintroduction of Physical Education into post- apartheid schools, when racism is still part of daily experiences in South Africa. vii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde is ’n menslike bewegingsaktiwiteit wat deur sillabusse en opvoedkundige programme aangedryf word. Daarteenoor is liggaamlike kultuur ’n menslike bewegingsprogram wat vermaak insluit, maar ook van liggaamlike opvoedingsaktiwiteite gebruik maak. Hierdie studie bied ’n oorsig oor Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur in die bruin gemeenskap van Wes-Kaapland vir die periode 1837 tot 1966. Dit dien as ’n historiese ondersoek van hierdie gebiede, met inagneming van die sosiaal-maatskaplike en politiese konteks en oorbrug nougesette definisies van ras en klas. Die navorsing poog ook om die onvertelde en minder aangename kant van die storie te vertel. Weens die politieke en kulturele band tussen Suid-Afrika en Europa, is die Europese oorsprong van Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur ondersoek. Die opkomende middelklas, verstedelikte bruin minderheidsgroep van die 19de en vroeë 20ste eeu was ywerig maar onsuksesvol om die wit gemeenskap binne te dring. Hulle was intens bewus daarvan dat hulle respek teenoor die wit middelklas moes toon en hulle moes distansieer van die “onwelvoeglike gedrag” van die werkersklas. Om hierdie rede het Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde- en liggaamskultuur- programme ’n gepaste manier vir die bruin middelklas geword om die “minder gegoede” bruin werkersklas op te voed. Die navorsing is in ses hoofstukke verdeel. Die eerste hoofstuk bespreek kontekstuele kwessies wat verband hou met die ideë van bruinwees en die implikasies vir Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur. Die bespreking word uitgebrei deur ’n oorsig oor die historiese ontwikkeling van die vakgebiede in Groot-Brittanje. Hoofstuk twee bied ’n omvattende literatuuroorsig oor Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur en sentreer rondom drie temas: die weglating van bruinmense uit die geskiedenis van Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde; die marginalisering van bruinmense as ’n natuurlike verskynsel en ’n analitiese kritiek van Suid-Afrikaanse Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Die derde hoofstuk identifiseer die histories-wetenskaplike metode as die navorsingsmetodiek. Dit belig ook die tekortkominge van hierdie metode en bespreek moontlike aanpassings om die tekortkomings te oorkom. Hoofstuk vier ondersoek die praktyk en invloed van sendingonderwys, die hoofbron van onderwys en daarom ook die bron van Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde vir bruin kinders. Hoofstuk vyf fokus op Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur in die breër bruin gemeenskap. Dit word gedemonstreer hoe diegene in die breër bruin gemeenskap wat Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur beoefen het, dit volgens gedragskodes van ‘beskaafde gedrag’ gedoen het, met die hoop om deur die wit gemeenskap aanvaar te word. Die slothoofstuk is ’n samevatting van die essensie van Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en liggaamlike kultuur in die bruin gemeenskap en bied insig in die interaksie tussen ras en klas gedurende twee tydperke waartydens wit rassisme die norm was. Die navorsing vestig