DEVELOPING LANDSCAPE: INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE By LAUREN SOSA A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2018 © 2018 Lauren Sosa To my mom, who taught me the importance of considering other peoples’ perspectives ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am still amazed by how fortunate I am to have Kristin Larsen as my advisor and chair. I will always be thankful for her guidance and encouragement. Simply put, she is the adviser every PhD student should have. I would also like to thank my committee members, Chris Silver, Tina Gurucharri, Anna Peterson, and Rob Holmes for their constructive criticism and dedication of time and energy. It was no small feat to get me to communicate my ideas, and if anything in this dissertation has come across clearly, I have my entire committee to thank for it. The friends I made in Gainesville are among the best friends I have ever found, and I do not have the words to adequately express my love and gratitude for them. A big shout-out to my four-year/forever friend, Clarissa Carr, whose thoughtfulness, cat memes, care packages, and Sushi Chao excursions sustained me. I am also thankful to my dear friends, Lisa Lundgren, and Andy Nelson, for their constant supply of camaraderie and epic game nights. I would also like to thank my “adopted” Gainesville parents, Simon and Lisa Swift, for their friendship, home-cooked meals, and occasional venting sessions over a really nice single-malt. I am also grateful for new-found friendships in Massachusetts, and would like to thank Keelia Liptak, for her constant affirmation that I will, indeed, be fine. I am incredibly thankful for the support from my family. I would especially like to thank my sister, Caitie, for her uncanny ability to make me laugh, and for always being there when I need her, whether for reassurance, happy distractions, or to celebrate the small victories. I also thank my cousin, the ever-lovely Taylor Clark, for her empathy and supportive phone calls. 4 Most importantly, I want to thank my husband, Iván Sosa, for his love and support, for making sure I took time for a little adventure every once in a while, and for always being ready to provide me with a pizza, a glass of wine, or both, depending on how the day went. I am so happy and grateful that he is in my life, and I’m excited for our next adventure, wherever it may lead—but hopefully it involves a sailboat. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 10 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 11 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 14 The Big Picture: Connecting International Development, Landscape Architecture, and Environmental Ethics ............................................................... 16 Approach to Key Terms .......................................................................................... 24 Sustainability and Sustainable Development.................................................... 25 Development .................................................................................................... 27 Subaltern .......................................................................................................... 28 Postcolonialism as Theoretical Framework ............................................................. 31 Colonial History and European Empire ............................................................ 32 The Politics of Postcolonialism ......................................................................... 34 Methods .................................................................................................................. 35 Ethnographic Content Analysis ........................................................................ 37 Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................... 40 Summary .......................................................................................................... 41 Overview of Chapters ............................................................................................. 41 2 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................... 44 Overview ................................................................................................................. 44 Origins of International Development ...................................................................... 45 Scope of International Development ....................................................................... 50 The SDGs and Landscape Architecture.................................................................. 50 Different Approaches in International Development ................................................ 53 Moving Forward ...................................................................................................... 58 3 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................. 62 Overview ................................................................................................................. 62 Topics in Landscape Architecture ........................................................................... 63 Intangible Aspects of Landscape ............................................................................ 68 Values ..................................................................................................................... 71 Wicked Problems and Design Thinking .................................................................. 78 6 Wicked Problems ............................................................................................. 79 Design Thinking ................................................................................................ 81 Summary ................................................................................................................ 86 4 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE ......................... 88 Overview ................................................................................................................. 88 Environmental Ethics Primer ................................................................................... 92 Landscape Architecture’s Ethics ............................................................................. 96 Utilitarianism and Participation ......................................................................... 97 Sustainability: Stewardship and Social Justice ............................................... 101 Summary .............................................................................................................. 109 5 THEMES FOR AN ETHICAL APPROACH TO LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IN THE SUBALTERN............................................................................................ 113 Overview ............................................................................................................... 113 Power and Justice ................................................................................................ 114 Difference ............................................................................................................. 118 Accountability ........................................................................................................ 123 Praxis .................................................................................................................... 125 6 EXAMPLES OF PRAXIS AND CONCLUSION ..................................................... 130 Overview ............................................................................................................... 130 Praxis and Attitudes .............................................................................................. 132 Education .............................................................................................................. 133 Critical Awareness .......................................................................................... 138 Foot Soldiers and Practicality ......................................................................... 142 Professional .......................................................................................................... 148 Accountability ................................................................................................. 149 Participation and Finding the Right Question ................................................. 153 Addressing Systemic Issues and Informal Armatures .................................... 156 Summary .............................................................................................................. 163 Additional Recommendations ............................................................................... 168 Further Research .................................................................................................