The University of Otago Department of Languages and Cultures The Role of Values in Japanese Elite Views of Contemporary Japan-China Relations A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Division of Humanities in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Balazs Kiglics Advisor: Associate Professor Roy Starrs Dunedin, New Zealand 2018 Copyright © 2018 by Balazs Kiglics All rights reserved fire under the ash and written on the wall the shadow of a friend - Matsuo Bashō (1644-1694) - dead my old fine hopes and dry my dreaming but still iris, blue each spring - Ome Shushiki (1668-1725) - i Table of Contents Abstract vi Acknowledgements vii List of Abbreviations viii List of Figures and Maps ix Introduction to question, methodology, main concepts and key terms 1 Overview 1 Research question 4 Concepts 6 Values 6 Political values 8 Universal values 10 Japanese values and nihonjinron 13 Methodology 19 Prospectus 22 Chapter One Dynamics of post-Pacific War Japan-China relations: from normalization back to abnormality? 23 Introduction 23 The events leading up to the 1972 normalization: Japan’s new 24 dependence and its under-the-radar China policy Japan-China relations from their diplomatic normalization until the end of the Cold War (1972-1990): relative peace under control 32 Japan-China relations in the 1990s: removed constraints 43 Japan-China relations in the beginning of the 21st century: hot economics, cold politics 53 Conclusion: back to the future? 65 ii Chapter Two Japanese academic perceptions of contemporary Japan-China relations 73 Introduction 73 Shin`ichi Kitaoka and the question of proactive pacifism 76 Hitoshi Tanaka: from comprehensive engagement and multilateralism back to realism? 84 Takashi Hoshiyama: Japan finally liberated from the “spell of history”? 95 Kazuhiko Noguchi and Kentarō Sakuwa: bringing realism back? 100 Hidetaka Yoshimatsu and the question of identity 107 Yoshihide Soeya and the question of internationalism 110 Discussion: strengths and weaknesses of Japanese academic scholarship 114 Chapter Three The role of values in Japan’s political strategies vis-à-vis China 129 Introduction 129 Japan’s ambiguity towards values in its relations with China and East Asia from the end of the Cold War until the early 2000s 130 Values versus pragmatism: the emergence of the concepts of the East Asian Community and the Arc of Freedom and Prosperity 138 The East Asian Community initiative 138 The rise and decline of value-oriented diplomacy and the “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity” 144 The start of a prolonged period of political instability: further inconsistencies in Japan’s foreign policy strategies 155 Back to relative political stability: the second Abe government 163 Discussion: the controversial role of values in Japan’s foreign policy strategies 166 Chapter Four A challenge to Japan’s commitment to universal values: The LDP’s constitutional values and the State Secrets Protection Law 175 Introduction 175 The creation of Japan’s post-war Constitution 176 The significance of the post-war Constitution 178 The LDP’s Draft Constitution 180 The Preamble 182 The most significant value changes proposed by the LDP 185 Reinstating kimigayo and hinomaru as national symbols 187 Elevating the status of the Emperor and Shinto 189 Public order versus public freedom and individual rights 196 iii Eliminating the notion of the “individual” and defining new duties for the people 199 The family as the “natural and fundamental unit of society” 201 Granting new powers to the Prime Minister 202 The end of the Peace Constitution? Article 9 204 Paving the way for future constitutional changes 206 Domestic criticism of the LDP’s constitution 207 Japan’s State Secrets Law: another significant step threatening individual and universal values 210 Rule of law versus rule by law: Japan’s post-war values in danger 216 Conclusion 224 Credibility of Japan’s foreign policy strategies 225 Consistency of Japanese academic views 226 The Japanese political elite`s proposed domestic values 228 `What can Japan do better?` 229 ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ universal values in Japan’s international relations 232 How does Japan`s values-oriented diplomacy matter? 244 Bibliography 246 iv v Abstract In this thesis I clarify understanding of the role values play in Japanese views of contemporary Japan-China relations. I seek to answer the question: how consistently do values play a role in Japanese elite thought, both academic and political, thought in explaining contemporary Japan-China relations? I first uncover the dynamics of Japan’s relations with China from the end of the Pacific War until the mid-2010s. It then explores Japanese academic perceptions of current Japan-China relations, and follows this with an analysis of various foreign policy strategies that the Japanese government has formulated over the past nearly two decades, with a particular focus on the inconsistencies of the so-called values- oriented diplomacy, with which Japan aimed to forge new alliances in the Asia- Pacific and attempted to compete with the growing influence of China. The case study reveals further significant inconsistencies between certain values with which Japan has been attempting to appeal to an international audience and values the Japanese political elite considers important for its domestic population. This research draws from Japanese scholarly articles, documents and statements issued by the Japanese government, various news sources, publications of organizations, speeches made by Japanese government officials, and related secondary literature. I show that that not only are Japan-China relations problematic, but so are some of the contexts and value perceptions with which a number of leading Japanese scholars and members of the political elite view and explain these relations. It ultimately argues that adherence to values is indeed important and that, in order to make significant progress in its relations with China, Japan also needs to have a deeper understanding of the very values it considers important. Keywords: Japan, Japan-China relations, values, universal values, international relations vi Acknowledgements I am grateful to a number of people who helped me during my doctoral journey. My advisor, Roy Starrs, has given me guidance, encouragement, and support. A doctoral scholarship from the University of Otago provided me with necessary financial resources, and the Department of Languages and Cultures with a welcoming environment. My studies and research would not have been possible without their help. The staffs of the libraries at the University of Otago, particularly Thelma Fisher, have been very helpful in furthering my research. I am particularly indebted to Jean-Marie Carey and Sabrina Goh, who gave me much emotional support and helped with proofreading and various administrative challenges related to my thesis. I am deeply grateful to George Svachulay, who has given valuable feedback and advice on my writing. I would also like to thank Marialuisa Risoli and László Szöllősi-Cira for their generous support throughout my research. I am also deeply grateful to my wife, Pattama, who was always beside me and has given much mental and emotional support without failing to be patient with me all throughout my doctoral journey. Frequent and vibrant discussions about philosophy, values, fair play, and politics in the Hungarian Foundation for the Philosophy of Sport had a significant influence on shaping my views and greatly contributed to my initial travel to, and subsequent settling in, beautiful Aotearoa New Zealand. Those discussion played a large part in my decision to undertake this research. I am deeply and forever grateful to my parents, István Kiglics and Gitta Pataki, and my grandparents, Lajos Pataky and Éva Pataky, for teaching me from an early age the importance of values. My thesis is dedicated to them, to my wife Pattama, to my old friend George, and to the members of the Hungarian Foundation for the Philosophy of Sport. vii List of Abbreviations ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations CEAC Council on East Asian Community CCP Chinese Communist Party DPJ Democratic Party of Japan EAC East Asian Community EAS East Asia Summit FTA Free Trade Agreement GDP Gross Domestic Product LDP Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) NEAT Network of East Asian Think Tanks MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Japan) ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PLA People`s Liberation Army (China) PRC People’s Republic of China ROC Republic of China SCAP Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers SDF Self-Defense Forces SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute UN United Nations UNSC United Nations Security Council USA United States of America USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the Soviet Union) WTO World Trade Organization viii List of Figures and Maps Figure 1. GDP, current US$ million, 1988-2016: China, India, Japan, South Korea, USA 70 Figure 2. Military Expenditure, in constant (2015) US$ million, 1988-2016: China, India, Japan, South Korea, USA 70 Figure 3. Military Expenditure per capita in constant (2015) US$, 1988-2016: China, India, Japan, South Korea, USA 71 Figure 4. Military Expenditure (% of GDP), 1988-2016: China, India, Japan, South Korea, USA 71 Figure 5. Military dynamics of the Indo-Pacific, 2016 72 Map 1. American military bases in the Indo-Pacific encircling China 72 Map 2. “The Arc of Freedom and Prosperity” 174 ix Introduction to question,