LLM in Natural Resources Law and International Environmental Law Submarine Power Cables and the Marine Environment Legal obligations of the Coastal States in the North-East Atlantic Stefán Erlendsson Dr. Aðalheiður Jóhannsdóttir Faculty of Law School of Social Sciences May 2016 Abstract Submarine Cables have been laid on the seabed since the nineteenth century and have special status according to international law, which provides for the right of all states to lay cables and pipelines on the seabed. Only recently, due to increased number of cables and the cumulative impact adding to other offshore activities, awareness is raised in relation to the impact on the marine environment, which to some extent is not fully understood by scientists. Interconnection of electricity markets and the increase in use of renewable energy sources, such as wind and currents, with offshore power generation, is promoting submarine power cables as important energy infrastructure, in addition to the better known role of carrying telecommunications. This thesis describes the international obligations of the coastal states, in relation to submarine power cable projects, and operation of those in marine areas where coastal states exercise jurisdiction. The main focus is on the protection of the marine environment, while taking into account the importance and special status of such cables. The potential impact is considered and to what extent there may be obligations assess, prevent, manage or mitigate such impact. These obligations are found in the general principles of international law, and in international agreements. Further, the obligations as stipulated in EU law are highlighted, and special attention paid to the approach of the two EFTA states, Iceland and Norway, parties to the EEA Agreement. Focus is set on the planning and permitting requirements for cable projects, to show how well they serve to fulfil the international obligations, using Iceland as an example of national implementation. Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Submarine cables .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Issues and problems .......................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Objective and main research question ............................................................................... 5 1.4 Study´s structure and methodological approach ............................................................... 6 2. Submarine cables and the marine environment .......................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Implications for transmission of electricity ....................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Important electricity infrastructure ............................................................................ 8 2.2.2 International law promoting energy infrastructure..................................................... 9 2.2.3 Interconnection of the EU electricity market ........................................................... 10 2.3 Submarine cables and the Law of the sea ....................................................................... 11 2.3.1 History ...................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.2 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) ............................. 13 2.3.3 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................. 17 2.4. The process of laying submarine power cables .............................................................. 17 2.4.1 Different types of cables .......................................................................................... 17 2.4.2 Planning and surveying ............................................................................................ 18 2.4.3 The cable laying process .......................................................................................... 19 2.5 Environmental impact of submarine power cables ......................................................... 20 2.5.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 20 2.5.2 Disturbance and other impact on the seabed ............................................................ 20 2.5.3 Pollution ................................................................................................................... 21 2.5.4 Potential impact on vulnerable habitats and species ................................................ 23 2.6 Suggested mitigating measures ....................................................................................... 24 3. General principles and treaty obligations ................................................................. 25 i 3.1. The no-harm principle .................................................................................................... 25 3.1.1 Basic concept and scope .......................................................................................... 25 3.1.2 Transboundary harm ................................................................................................ 27 3.1.3 Transboundary effects of submarine power cables .................................................. 27 3.1.4 Duties of the state of origin ...................................................................................... 28 3.1.5 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 29 3.2 Precautionary Principle ................................................................................................... 30 3.2.1 Definition and meaning ............................................................................................ 30 3.2.2 Application in international judicial decisions ......................................................... 31 3.2.3 Precautionary principle and treaty practice .............................................................. 32 3.2.4 Discussion and conclusion ....................................................................................... 33 3.3 Duties of states according to part XII of the LOSC ........................................................ 34 3.3.1 The basic obligations of states ................................................................................. 34 3.3.2 Definition and different sources of pollution ........................................................... 35 3.3.3 Duties of states in relation to marine pollution ........................................................ 36 3.4 The OSPAR convention .................................................................................................. 37 3.4.1 General and scope .................................................................................................... 37 3.4.2 Pollution and the laying of submarine cables and pipelines .................................... 38 3.4.3 Obligations of the coastal state party to OSPAR ..................................................... 40 3.4.4 Relevant programs and measures ............................................................................. 41 3.5 Protection of biological diversity .................................................................................... 43 3.5.1 General issues .......................................................................................................... 43 3.5.2 UN Convention on biological diversity (CBD) ....................................................... 44 3.5.3 Marine protected areas (MPA´s) .............................................................................. 46 3.5.4 The 1971 Ramsar Convention .................................................................................. 49 3.6. Duty to perform environmental impact assessment (EIA/SEA) .................................... 51 3.6.1 General issues .......................................................................................................... 51 3.6.2 The ESPOO convention ........................................................................................... 52 3.6.3 Strategic environmental impact assessement (SEA) ................................................ 53 ii 3.6.4 The LOSC ................................................................................................................ 54 3.6.5 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................. 55 3.7 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 55 4. Obligations according to EU and EEA law .............................................................. 57 4.1 General issues ................................................................................................................. 57 4.1.1 EU policy areas ........................................................................................................ 57 4.1.2 Participation of the EU in International Agreements ............................................... 57 4.1.3 EU law in the EEZ and CS ......................................................................................