The significance of anime as a novel animation form, referencing selected works by Hayao Miyazaki, Satoshi Kon and Mamoru Oshii Ywain Tomos submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Aberystwyth University Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies, September 2013 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed………………………………………………………(candidate) Date …………………………………………………. STATEMENT 1 This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed………………………………………………………(candidate) Date …………………………………………………. STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed………………………………………………………(candidate) Date …………………………………………………. 2 Acknowledgements I would to take this opportunity to sincerely thank my supervisors, Elin Haf Gruffydd Jones and Dr Dafydd Sills-Jones for all their help and support during this research study. Thanks are also due to my colleagues in the Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies, Aberystwyth University for their friendship during my time at Aberystwyth. I would also like to thank Prof Josephine Berndt and Dr Sheuo Gan, Kyoto Seiko University, Kyoto for their valuable insights during my visit in 2011. In addition, I would like to express my thanks to the Coleg Cenedlaethol for the scholarship and the opportunity to develop research skills in the Welsh language. Finally I would like to thank my wife Tomoko for her support, patience and tolerance over the last four years – diolch o’r galon Tomoko, ありがとう 智子. 3 Table of Contents Page Declaration.................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... 3 Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... 4 List of Figures................................................................................................................ 10 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 13 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Research aims.................................................................................................... 14 1.2 Defining anime.................................................................................................... 16 1.3 Purpose of the study........................................................................................... 19 1.4 Structure of the study.......................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Definitions of orthodox animation.................................................................. …. 22 2.2 Definitions of anime………………………………………………………………….. 25 2.3 Anime in Japanese cultural and economic contexts........................................... 33 2.4 Anime's global role beyond Japan...................................................................... 39 2.5 Technical features of anime within animation.................................................... 58 Chapter 3: Methodology for the Study 3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 62 4 3.2 The theoretical basis for the study..................................................................... 62 3.3 Research areas................................................................................................... 76 3.4 The choice of methodology................................................................................. 78 3.5 Content analysis.................................................................................................. 79 3.6 Genre theory....................................................................................................... 83 3.7 Semiotic analysis................................................................................................. 85 3.8 The significance of trans-medial developments.................................................. 87 3.9 The influence of glocalisation............................................................................... 88 3.10 Data collection..................................................................................................... 89 3.11 The importance of auteur theories....................................................................... 92 3.12 Background to the interpretation process.......................................................... 94 3.13 The analytic process.......................................................................................... 95 3.14 Summary............................................................................................................. 97 Chapter 4: The Development of Japanese Anime 4.1 The influence of 'nihonjinron'............................................................................. 101 4.2 Influence of Japanese aesthetic traditions........................................................ 104 4.3 External influences............................................................................................. 110 4.3.1 South East Asia........................................................................................ 111 4.3.2 European influence after1868................................................................. 114 4.4 Early cinematography....................................................................................... 115 4.5 Early Japanese cinema...................................................................................... 116 4.6 Early Japanese animation................................................................................. 118 4.7 Post-war occupation 1945 – 1952.................................................................... 120 5 4.8 The post-war development of anime.................................................................. 123 4.8.1 Development of production facilities....................................................... 123 4.8.2 The influence of Toei Doga...................................................................... 124 4.8.3 The influence of Osamu Tezuka (1928-1989)......................................... 126 4.9 Diversity in the 1970s, 80s and 90s............................................................... 130 4.9.1 Establishing the anime industry…........................................................ 131 4.9.2 Emergence of sub-genres....................................................................... 132 4.9.3 Anime's visual language.......................................................................... 143 4.9.4 The influence of 'otaku' fans.................................................................... 144 4.10 Anime in the twenty first century ....................................................................... 146 Chapter 5: Falling to Earth, Hayao Miyazaki (1941 - ) 5.1 Defining the evidence......................................................................................... 149 5.2 Hayao Miyazaki's approach to animation…….................................................... 150 5.3 The establishment of Studio Ghibli.................................................................... 153 5.4 The nature of Miyazaki's auteurship….............................................................. 154 5.5 The evidence from selected works.................................................................... 156 5.5.1 'Tenkuu no Shiro Rapyuta' Laputa: Castle in the Sky, 1986.................... 157 5.5.1.1 Content analysis.................................................................... ….. 157 5.5.1.2 Cultural factors............................................................................. 161 5.5.1.3 Animation techniques................................................................... 164 5.5.2 'Tonari no Totoro' My Neighbor Totoro, 1988........................................... 170 6 5.5.2.1 Content analysis........................................................................... 171 5.5.2.2 Cultural factors............................................................................. 175 5.5.2.3 Animation techniques................................................................... 177 5.5.3 'Kurenai no Buta' Porco Rosso,1992...................................................... 179 5.5.3.1 Content analysis..................................................................….... 180 5.5.3.2 Cultural factors..................................................................... ….... 188 5.5.3.3 Animation techniques.................................................................... 190 5.5.4 'Mononoke Hime' Princess Mononoke, 1997.......................................... 192 5.5.4.1 Content analysis.................................................................. …..... 192 5.5.4.2 Cultural factors............................................................................ 196 5.5.4.3 Animation techniques.................................................................... 199 5.5.5 'Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi' Spirited Away,