Report on the Effects of Wildfire on Drinking Water Utilities and Effective Practices for Wildfire Risk Reduction and Mitigation Report on the Effects of Wildfire on Drinking Water Utilities and Effective Practices for Wildfire Risk Reduction and Mitigation August 2013 Prepared by: Chi Ho Sham, Mary Ellen Tuccillo, and Jaime Rooke The Cadmus Group, Inc. 100 5th Ave., Suite 100 Waltham, MA 02451 Jointly Sponsored by: Water Research Foundation 6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235-3098 and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. Published by: [Insert WaterRF logo] DISCLAIMER This study was jointly funded by the Water Research Foundation (Foundation) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The Foundation and USEPA assume no responsibility for the content of the research study reported in this publication or for the opinions or statements of fact expressed in the report. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not represent or imply the approval or endorsement of either the Foundation or USEPA. This report is presented solely for informational purposes Copyright © 2013 by Water Research Foundation ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or otherwise utilized without permission. ISBN [inserted by the Foundation] Printed in the U.S.A. CONTENTS DISCLAIMER.............................................................................................................................. iv CONTENTS................................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xi FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................. xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................... xv LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ xvii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... xix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 Project Methodology ...................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 1 Wildfire Impact Survey ...................................................................................... 2 Wildfire Readiness and Response Workshop .................................................... 2 Report Overview ............................................................................................................ 3 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACTS OF WILDFIRE .......................... 5 Vulnerability of Ecosystems to Wildfires ...................................................................... 5 Methodology and Factors Affecting Vulnerability ............................................ 5 Vulnerability Studies .......................................................................................... 8 Mitigating the Risk of Wildfires to Water Systems ....................................................... 9 Quantification of Vulnerability of Water Systems ............................................. 9 Emergency Preparedness and Response Plans ................................................. 10 Factors Affecting Vulnerability ....................................................................... 11 Source Water Protection and Forest Management Measures ....................................... 12 Tools for Source Water Protection and Forest Management ........................... 13 Community Wildfire Protection Plans ............................................................. 13 Examples of Organized Efforts and Wildfire Mitigation Plans ....................... 14 Funding Sources for Source Water Protection and Forest Management ......... 15 Water Quality Effects of Wildfires .............................................................................. 16 Nutrients ........................................................................................................... 16 Organic Carbon ................................................................................................ 19 Other Chemical Constituents ........................................................................... 19 Suspended Sediments and Turbidity ................................................................ 20 Effects of Fire Retardant Chemicals ................................................................ 21 Hydrologic Effects, Sediment Yields, and Debris Flows ............................................. 21 Total Runoff ..................................................................................................... 22 Peak Flows ....................................................................................................... 23 v Sediment Mobilization ..................................................................................... 25 Debris Flows .................................................................................................... 26 Implications for Drinking Water Supply and Treatment .............................................. 27 Reservoir Sedimentation .................................................................................. 28 Water Quality ................................................................................................... 28 Watershed and Water Quality Recovery ...................................................................... 30 Post-Fire Monitoring ........................................................................................ 31 Watershed Rehabilitation ............................................................................................. 33 Emergency Recovery ....................................................................................... 33 BAER Treatments ............................................................................................ 33 Effectiveness of Emergency Rehabilitation Treatments .................................. 34 Funding for Wildfire Rehabilitation ................................................................ 34 Long-term Recovery ........................................................................................ 35 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter 3 SURVEY ON THE IMPACTS OF WILDFIRE ON DRINKING WATER SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................... 37 Wildfires And Survey Respondents ............................................................................. 37 Mitigating The Risk Of Wildfire .................................................................................. 40 Wildfire Hazard Assessments .......................................................................... 40 Watershed-based Risk Mitigation Activities ................................................... 42 Infrastructure-based Risk Mitigation Activities ............................................... 45 Potential Challenges To Conducting Watershed Wildfire Mitigation Activities ......... 46 Coordination and Collaboration ....................................................................... 46 Permits ............................................................................................................. 48 Strategic Partnerships and Communication ..................................................... 48 Wildfire Risk Mitigation Best Practices .......................................................... 51 Costs Associated With Watershed Risk Mitigation Activities ..................................... 52 Funding Watershed Risk Mitigation Activities................................................ 52 Leveraging Funding through Partnerships ....................................................... 53 Leveraging Funding in Australia and Canada .................................................. 54 Funding Drinking Water Infrastructure Risk Reduction/Relocation Activities55 Damages Resulting from Wildfire ............................................................................... 55 Adapting to Changes Caused by Wildfires ...................................................... 57 Emergency Preparedness in the Event of a Wildfire .................................................... 59 Preparedness Plans ........................................................................................... 59 Fire Suppression Equipment ............................................................................ 61 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 61 Wildfire Risk Mitigation .................................................................................. 61 Challenges to Conducing Wildfire Mitigation ................................................. 62 Collaboration and Partnership .........................................................................