Southeastern Montana in the Late Prehistoric Period: Human Adaptation and Projectile Point Chronology Lynn Berry Fredlund B.S. University of Wisconsin, 1965 M.A. University of Colorado, 1968 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department 0 f Archaeol ogy 0 Lynn Berry Fred1und 1981 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY September 1981 All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Lynn Berry Fredlund Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: Southeastern Montana in the Late Prehistoric Period: Human Adaptation and Projecti 1e Point Chronology Exarrli rl i nq Committee : Chairperson: Richard Shutler, Jr. Phi 1 ip If. /Hobier Senior fjupervisor Kndt R. Fladmark Erle Nelson Roy,,Y. Far1 son PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis or dissertation (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for 'such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its 'own behalf or for one of its usere. I further agree that permissicm for multiple copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Title of ~hesis/~issertation: Southeastern Montana in the Late Prehistdric Period: Human Ada~tationand . Projectile Point Chronology Author : (signa tu rd3/ Lynn Berry Fredlund (name ) (date) ABSTRACT A central goal of this thesis is to provide a framework for explaining adaptive strategies and artifact histories of the Late Prehistoric Period I (A.D. 250-1000) and I1 (A.D. 1000-1700) in the Pine Breaks of southeast Montana. The method by which this is achieved involves the identification and clarification of the expanded flake point tradition through, in part, a survey of the literature and through the exploration of evidence from exca- vated sites and survey inventory sites, many of which are not yet fully pub1 ished. Present archaeological evidence suggests that hunting, lithic procure- ment, population density, and settlement systems of the Pine Breaks area were somewhat different from those of the open plains. The Pine Breaks, an ecologically distinct area within the Northwestern Plains, provides many attributes for human occupation that the open plains do not. The Period I Benson's Butte-Beehive complex represents an adaptation to the Pine Breaks. It is characterized by Avonlea-1 ike points, high fortifiable 1iving locations and circular rock-walled dwell ing structures. Benson's Butte, one of the type sites of this complex, also yielded evidence of a point manufacturing technique which utilizes a distinct expanding flake. It is hypothesized that use of the--- expanding_.fl&e forms the basis of the fabrication process for most of all Late Prehistoric small side-notched arrow points. Based on this manufacturing tradition, it follows that tri- angular unnotched forms or "points" are rarely used as projectile tips, but as preforms for the notched points of the Late Prehistoric period. Although identified in the Pine Breaks area, this refinement of projectile point ii i chronology is appl icable to the Northwestern Pl ains and possibly other areas of North America. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the process of writing this dissertation I had suggestions and, more important, moral support from a great many people. Phil Hobler and nut Fladmark read the various drafts and provided me with thought-pro- voking ideas and much needed guidance. Phil put up with the long-distance phone calls, hassles with the mail strike and other minor crises to insure that everything was done in a timely and proper manner. The discussions and friendly arguments provided by Knut were a learning experience in themselves. The rest of the staff, particularly Roy Carlson, Earle Nelson and Jack Nance, were always will ing to talk and work out problems. Ingrid Bell and the office staff helped with bureauratic difficulties. Without the assistance and support of my family and the Mineral Re- search Center staff it would have been difficult to complete this work. 1 have had the use of the facilities and equipment and many people to discuss my ideas and theories. My husband, Dale, has been supportive, critical, and was the primary person who helped me work out the details of much of the following work. Dale Herbort, who is especially interested in lithic technology, worked with me by knapping various materials, trying various techniques and critically reviewing my commentary on manufacturing of tools. Susan Steere, Howard Billian, and Shirley Munson reviewed and proofed the drafts. Jerry Clark and David Fraley, BLM archaeologist, pro- vided very pertinent comments and suggestions. Margo Chapman helped me in too many ways to list here. Finally, Patsy White who helped type, compile the final draft and supply needed sparks of humor throughout deserves a special thanks. TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL ....................................................... ii ABSTRACT ....................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................ vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ................................................ x Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1 Chapter 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................... 6 Assumptions ............................................... 7 Assumption 1.......................................... 8 Assumption 2 .......................................... 11 Assumption 3 ........................................... 15 Assumption 4 .......................................... 17 Initial Stage . I................................... 22 Refinement Stage - I1............................... 23 Explanatory Stage - I11............................. 25 Northwestern Plains: An Example of the Refinement Stage .................................... 25 Summary ............................................. 26 Assumption 5 ........................................... 29 Assumption 6 ........................................... 32 Assumption 7 ........................................... 34 Chapter 3: THE LATE PREHISTORIC PERIOD ON THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS: A PERSPECTIVE .............................................. 37 Introduction.......................................... 37 Late Prehistoric: Period I (A.D. 150-250 to A.D. 1150) .................................... 46 Late Prehistoric: Period I1 (A.D. 1150 to 1700) ........ 53 Chapter 4: A REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF THE PROJECTILE POINT TYPOLOGY ..... 57 Small Side-Notched Arrow Points: The Validity of Temporal /Cul tural Variabil ity ........................... 59 1. Projectile Point Consistency .......................... 63 2. Consistency of the Arrow Shaft ........................ 74 3 . Stratigraphic Separation.............................. 76 Summary ............................................ 78 The Small Triangular Biface Form.......................... 81 1. Campsites. Bison Kills and Triangular Unnotched Forms .................................. 84 2 . Temporal Association of Triangular Forms ........... 89 3 . Variation in the Triangular Form................... 91 Summary ................................................ 94 Chapter 5: THE MANUFACTURE OF SMALL SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS: THE EXPANDING FLAKE POINT TRADITION ........................ 96 The Archaic Point Tradition: Some Inferences.............. 98 The Core ............................................. 101 Stages of the Triangular Preform.......................... 104 Finishing and Hafting the Point ........................... 110 Comparison with Notched Points............................ 111 Changes Through Time ...................................... 112 Summary of SSNA Manufacture ............................. 113 Chapter 6: ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY WITHIN THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS .......... 115 The Pine Breaks ........................................... 121 Climate ................................................ 125 Soils .................................................. 127 Wildlife and Vegetation Characteristics ................ 129 Prehistoric Use of Faunal and Floral Resources ............ 135 Cl imatic Change During the Late Prehistoric Period........ 137 Chapter 7: ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES OF THE LATE PREHISTORIC PERIOD IN THE PINE BREAKS OF SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA ................. 143 Settlement Patterns...................................... 144 Food Procurement ...................................... 160 Hunting Strategies .............................. 164 Gathering Strategies ................................... 171 Food Processing........................................... 172 Lithic Procurement Strategies ............................. 174 vii Chapter 8: THE PINE BREAKS AND THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................... 177 Indigenous Populations .................................... 177 Seasonal vs . Scheduled Use ................................. 182 The Pine Breaks as a .Barrieru ............................ 185 Benson's Butte - Beehive Complex .......................... 186