Hyenas of the Limpopo Hyenas of the Limpopo The Social Politics of Undocumented Movement across South Africa’s Border with Zimbabwe Xolani Tshabalala Linköping Studies in Arts and Science No. 729 Faculty of Arts and Sciences Linköping 2017 Linköping Studies in Arts and Science • No. 729 At the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Linköping University, research and doctoral studies are carried out within broad problem areas. Research is organized in interdisciplinary research environments and doctoral studies mainly in graduate schools. Jointly, they publish the series Linköping Studies in Arts and Science. This thesis comes from Institute for Research on Migration, Ethnicity and Society (REMESO) at the Department of Social and Welfare Studies. Distributed by: Department of Social and Welfare Studies Linköping University 581 83 Linköping Xolani Tshabalala Hyenas of the Limpopo: The Social Politics of Undocumented Movement across South Africa’s Border with Zimbabwe Edition 1:1 ISBN 978-91-7685-408-2 ISSN 0282-9800 © Xolani Tshabalala Department of Social and Welfare Studies 2017 Typesetting and cover by Merima Mešić Printed by: LiU-Tryck, Linköping 2017 Acknowledgements The decision to pursue PhD level studies at what in the beginning seemed like a faraway place represented a leap into the unknown. Along the winding journey that has brought me to this point, I have accumulated many debts. I will never be able to recall or pay them all, and in explicitly acknowledging the help of some people here, I remain equally indebted, in the spirit of the gift, to many others whose generosity is all the more appreciated in its namelessness. I give thanks to the almighty God for holding me up constantly, and I make mention of Him always in my prayers. I thank the many people who participated in this study, in Zimbabwe, South Africa, and at the Beitbridge border, without whose insights and experiences I could not have been able to put together this thesis. Special thanks go to Msholozi, a key participant who allowed me into his world, and put up with a lot of hours I spent prying into his life and secrets. I also thank all other participants in Zimbabwe and South Africa, in Beitbridge and in Musina towns, and many fellow travellers, migrants, and facilitators, for being generous hosts. Ukwanda kwaliwa ngabathakathi. Lingadinwa lakusasa! The privilege to rub shoulders with researchers at, and to be part of a stimulating research environment that is REMESO is an experience I treasure well. But this experience has both a beginning and some defining moments. When I first arrived in Stockholm in early September of 2012, at night, Stefan Jonsson was there to pick me up in a rather old car. I believe he replaced it not long afterwards. That night, Stefan drove with me to his apartment in Norrköping, from where I began to learn and experience, step by step, everything that has placed me in a position to complete this thesis. I mention this in recognition of how Stefan has been more than a research supervisor to me. At the very foundation of the many ways in which he has supported me, Stefan has retained belief in my abilities even when I have been beset with self-doubt, which seems to happen often. But he has also, while guiding me along the way, allowed me to discover things for myself. For the many troubles he has gone through on my behalf, and for taking the time to comment on the many ideas I have been experimenting with over the years, I offer my humble thanks. I also wish to thank Carl-Ulrik Schierup, my other supervisor, for inspired conversations about ‘reading’ social texts, and situations, and not least for his excellent understanding of the politics and economies of labour migration in South Africa. His insights throughout my studies, and particularly towards the completion of this manuscript, have been indispensable. Carl, I am grateful for your enthusiasm in going through the drafts I have been sending your way, and in providing helpful critique of the theory and methods of studying everyday social situations that are taking place halfway around the globe. Thank you also for your help with life outside the institute. Zoran Slavnic deserves mention for his helpful interventions at important stages of this process. I have likewise been able to draw inspiration from seemingly mundane conversations with Peo Hansen, Branka Likic-Brboric, Anna Bredström, Magnus Dahlstedt, Patricia Lorenzoni and Anders Neergaard. I offer my thanks to them all. More thanks go to Simone Scarpa, who could not tire in reflecting on the possible directions my research was taking. I thank Aleksandra Ålund too, for insisting that there was a positive end to my PhD journey. Iz’bongo kuwe Sara Ahlstedt, Viktor Vesterberg, Jennie K. Larsson, Christophe Foultier, Indre Genelyte, Olav Nygård, Andrey Tibajev, Lisa Karlsson Blom, and Ayşegül Kayagil, my ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS former and current PhD colleagues at the institute. Through your reflections and support, I have been able to benefit in writing this thesis as well as in being part of a familiar circle that is connected by a common purpose. Thank you, Julia Willén, for your enthusiasm regarding my research episteme. Special mention goes to Karin Krifors, who, on a particular day along the disserted corridors of REMESO in the summer of 2016, convinced me of the value in not postponing my studies when I had accepted to do just that. Thank you, Karin, for showing me the value you place in life itself. I must mention Nedžad Mešić, whose help at and outside the institute has been altogether immeasurable. Among the countless favours Nedžad has extended my way, he supported me as I carried the burden of mourning my late mother. I can never be grateful enough for that. Nedžad and I have also had innumerable conversations over bad coffee as we burnt the midnight oil at REMESO, conversations that kept the belief in me that ‘it can be done’. Along the way, I have also benefitted from scholars based at different stations, who took the time to read earlier and different drafts of this text. I wish to mention Anja Karlsson Franck, Lisa Åkesson, Khalid Khayati, Cristina Udelsmann-Rodrigues, and Jesper Bjanersen, who gave thorough and precise feedback on what was inevitably rough drafts of this thesis. Special thanks to Anja, who helped me situate my research more clearly, and to Cristina, who suggested a more holistic approach to addressing Southern African ‘informality’. I acknowledge Jesper’s plea for me to carry through with the ideas I may have, and to not fizzle out like a ‘fireworks malfunction’. Can I also thank Joost Fontein, whose passion for writing and research is infectious? Joost advised me to write as often as it is possible. Needless to say, that craft is still coming to me. In South Africa, my former institute, the African Centre for Migration and Society (ACMS) deserves mention. I have been able to continue to interact with and find a temporary home among former colleagues while on fieldwork and other exchanges. I wish to thank Loren Landau, Ingrid Palmary, Jo Vearey, and Jean- Pierre Misago for their time, resources and critical comments on seminar presentations I have held there. Darshan Vigneswaran made it all happen for me. Thank you Darshan, you have been immense. I must also thank Khangelani Moyo, umasaka ole- focus! Khangelani facilitated my fieldwork at the University of the Witwatersrand’s School of Architecture and Planning, among many other experiences he shared with me. I also thank Stanford Mahati, who suggested useful contacts in Musina Town, on the border of South Africa and Zimbabwe. Partly as a result of his contacts, I was able to spend a considerable amount of time conducting fieldwork across the border. Thank you to Freedom Mazwi and Tonderai Sichone, from the Agrarian Institute in Harare, for helping me access the National Archives of Zimbabwe, and for knowing where to look for specific documents in such a big place. I should also mention Rwayi at the National Archives in Bulawayo, whose help and suggestions on colonial documents was pivotal for the continuation of the archival part of my research work in Zimbabwe. Special mention goes Eva Rehnholm, Anita Andersson and Bitte Palmqvist, who have helped with the often complex and dense administration terrain at Linköping University. Leanne Johnstone took the trouble to proofread my text, and to suggest solutions to the many problems that come with mobilizing a second language as a writing and communication medium. The inconsistencies that remain in the text are, without doubt, altogether mine. I also thank Merima Mešić, for her patient generosity with the final text adjustments. One could only imagine that it runs in the family. I have great gratitude for Forte (FAS), who supported my PhD studies while at REMESO. I also wish to thank the Nordic Africa Institute (NAI), for funding my fieldwork in Zimbabwe and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS South Africa, and for hosting me as a visiting PhD researcher in October of 2016. Victor Adetula, the (then) head of research at NAI, deserves a mention for his piercing insights into the challenges that confront contemporary Africa, and for asking direct questions about the substance of my research questions. I reserve special mention for Marie Karlsson, who made sure I found my way around the Institute, and around Uppsala. Through the many interactions I have had with her, Marie has shown me that it is possible to combine studies, family, and floorball. And for that, I am very grateful. Further gratitude goes to Sparbanksstiftelsens Alfas internationella stipendiefond för LiU Norrköping, through whose generosity I could carry out some of the fieldwork for this study.