society for ecological restoration intern a t i o n a l The SER International Primer o n Ecological Restoration Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group (Version 2: October, 2004)* Section 1: Overview . 1 Section 2: Definition of Ecological Restoration . 3 Section 3: Attributes of Restored Ecosystems . 3 Section 4: Explanations of Terms . 4 Section 5: Reference Ecosystems . 8 Section 6: Exotic Species . 9 Section 7: Monitoring and Evaluation . 10 Section 8: Restoration Planning. 11 Section 9: Relationship Between Restoration Practice and Restoration Ecology . 11 Section 10: Relationship of Restoration to Other Activities . 12 Section 11: Integration of Ecological Restoration into a Larger Program. 13 This document should be cited as: Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group. 2004. The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration International. The principal authors of this Primer were André Clewell (Quincy, FL USA), James Aronson (Montpellier, France), and Keith Winterhalder (Sudbury, ON Canada). Clewell initially proposed the Primer and wrote its first draft. Aronson and Winterhalder, in collaboration with Clewell, revised the Primer into its present form. Winterhalder, in his capacity as Chairperson of SER’s Science & Policy Working Group, coordinated this effort and invited other Working Group members to participate. Eric Higgs (Victoria, BC Canada) crafted the Overview sec- tion. Dennis Martinez (Douglas City, CA USA) contributed a position paper that became the basis for text pertaining to cultural ecosystems. Other Working Group members provided critiques and suggestions as the work progressed, including Richard Hobbs (Murdoch, WA Australia), James Harris (London, UK), Carolina Murcia (Cali, Colombia), and John Rieger (San Diego, CA USA). The SPWG acknowledges Eric Higgs, former Chairperson of SER International’s Board of Directors, for his encouragement and for bringing the Primer before SER International’s Directors for its official adoption as an SER International document on 6 April, 2002, by unanimous vote. This document supercedes SER Int e r n a t i o n a l ’s Project Policies that wer e initially published in Res t o r ation Eco l o g y 2(2):132-133, 1994, and that wer e later posted on SER Int e r n a t i o n a l ’s website. This document also supercedes the policy on Project Evaluation that was posted on the SER International website. SER International environmental policies, initially published in Restoration Ecology 1(3):206-207, 1993, remain in effect. *The content of the second version is exactly the same as the first version published in 2002, except that International has been appended to SER's name, photos have been added, and the graphics red e s i g n e d . Version 2 was published simultaneously in print and on the internet at ww w. s e r. o r g . Section 1: Overview cological restoration is an intentional activity Restoration represents an indefinitely long-term Ethat initiates or accelerates the recovery of an commitment of land and resources, and a proposal ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and to restore an ecosystem requires thoughtful delibera- sustainability. Frequently, the ecosystem that requires tion. Collective decisions are more likely to be hon- restoration has been degraded, damaged, trans- ored and implemented than are those that are made formed or entirely destroyed as the direct or indirect unilaterally. For that reason, it behooves all stake- result of human activities. In some cases, these holders to arrive at the decision to initiate a restora- impacts to ecosystems have been caused or aggravat- tion project by consensus. Once the decision to ed by natural agencies such as wildfire, floods, restore is made, the project requires careful and sys- storms, or volcanic eruption, to the point at which tematic planning and a monitored approach towards the ecosystem cannot recover its predisturbance state ecosystem recovery. The need for planning intensifies or its historic developmental trajectory. when the unit of restoration is a complex land- scape of contiguous ecosystems. Restoration attempts to return an ecosystem to its historic trajec- Interventions employed in t o ry. Historic conditions are restoration vary widely t h e re f o re the ideal start i n g among projects, depending point for re s t o r a t i o n on the extent and dura- design. The re s t o re d tion of past disturbances, ecosystem will not nec- cultural conditions that essarily re c over its for- have shaped the land- mer state, since contem- scape, and contemporary p o r a ry constraints and constraints and opportu- conditions may cause it nities. In the simplest cir- to develop along an cumstances, restoration a l t e red trajectory. The his- consists of removing or modifying a specific distur- toric trajectory of a seve re l y bance, thereby allowing ecolog- impacted ecosystem may be dif- ical processes to bring about an ficult or impossible to determine independent recovery. For example, with accuracy. Ne ve rtheless, the general removing a dam allows the return of an d i rection and boundaries of that trajectory can historical flooding regime. In more complex circum- be established through a combination of know l e d g e stances, restoration may also require the deliberate of the damaged ecosystem’s pre-existing stru c t u re , reintroduction of native species that have been lost, composition and functioning, studies on compara- and the elimination or control of harmful, invasive ble intact ecosystems, information about re g i o n a l exotic species to the greatest practicable extent. e n v i ronmental conditions, and analysis of other Often, ecosystem degradation or transformation has ecological, cultural and historical re f e rence infor- multiple, protracted sources, and the historical con- mation. These combined sources allow the historic stituents of an ecosystem are substantially lost. t r a j e c t o ry or re f e rence conditions to be chart e d Sometimes the developmental trajectory of a degrad- f rom baseline ecological data and pre d i c t i ve mod- ed ecosystem is blocked altogether, and its recovery els, and its emulation in the restoration pro c e s s through natural processes appears to be delayed should aid in piloting the ecosystem tow a rd s indefinitely. In all of these cases, however, ecological i m p roved health and integrity. restoration aims to initiate or facilitate the resump- www.ser.org SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration 1 tion of those processes which will return the ecosys- accept and even encourage new culturally appropri- tem to its intended trajectory. ate and sustainable practices that take into account contemporary conditions and constraints. In this When the desired trajectory is realized, the ecosys- regard, the North American focus on restoring pris- tem under manipulation may no longer require tine landscapes makes little or no sense in places like external assistance to ensure its future health and Europe where cultural landscapes are the norm, or in integrity, in which case restoration can be considered large parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America, where complete. Nevertheless, the restored ecosystem often ecological restoration is untenable unless it manifest- requires continuing management to counteract the ly bolsters the ecological base for human survival. invasion of opportunist species, the impacts of vari- ous human activities, climate change, and other What makes ecological restoration especially inspir- unforeseeable events. In this respect, a restored ing is that cultural practices and ecological processes ecosystem is no different from an undamaged can be mutually reinforcing. Accordingly, it is not ecosystem of the same kind, and both are likely to surprising that interest in ecological restoration is require some level of ecosystem management. growing rapidly worldwide and that, in most cases, Although ecosystem restoration and ecosys- cultural beliefs and practices are drawn upon tem management form a continuum to help determine and shape of what is and often employ similar sorts of to be performed under the rubric intervention, ecological restora- of restoration. tion aims at assisting or initi- ating recovery, whereas The definition presented on ecosystem management is the next page, the one offi- intended to guarantee the cially endorsed by the continued well-being of Society for Eco l o g i c a l the restored ecosystem Restoration Int e r n a t i o n a l , thereafter. is sufficiently general to al l o w a wide variety of Some ecosystems, partic- ap p r oaches to res t o r a t i o n , ularly in developing coun- while giving prominence to tries, are still managed by the historically rich idea of traditional, sustainable cultur- “rec o ver y.” T al practices. Reciprocity exists in these cultural ecosystems between cultural activities and ecological processes, such that human actions reinforce ecosystem health and sustainability. Many cultural ecosystems have suffered from demographic growth and external pressures of various kinds, and are in need of restoration. The restoration of such ecosys- tems normally includes the concomitant recovery of indigenous ecological management practices, includ- ing support for the cultural survival of indigenous peoples and their languages as living libraries of tra- ditional ecological knowledge. Ecological restoration encourages and may indeed be dependent upon long-term participation of local people. Cultural conditions in traditional cultures are currently undergoing unprecedented global change. To accom- modate this change, ecological restoration may 2 SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration www.ser.org Section 2: 1. The restored ecosystem contains a characteristic assemblage of the species that occur in the refer- efinition of ence ecosystem and that provide appropriate D Ecological community structure.