1 The London School of Economics and Political Science ADAPTING, ACTING OUT, OR STANDING FIRM: UNDERSTANDING THE PLACE OF DRUGS IN THE POLICING OF A LONDON BOROUGH Daniel Bear A thesis submitted to the Department of Social Policy at the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2013 2 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree in the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 108,005 words. N.B. A 10,000 word extension to the 100,000 word limit was authorised by the Research Degrees Subcommittee on September 4th, 2013. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Dr Sandra Sternig Babcock and Ms Karlina Gravitis, both of whom read the LSE Statement on Editorial Help for PhD Theses before providing assistance. Submitted for examination on September 30th, 2013. Daniel Bear 3 Abstract The number of police recorded incidents in England and Wales involving cannabis more than doubled between 2004 and 2009 even though use of the drug was in decline and official policy was geared towards tackling drugs ‘that cause most harm’(Home Office 2008). Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork carried out in a single London borough during the 12 months leading up to the 2011 riots, this research examines the place of drugs within everyday policing, focusing on the working lives of street-level police officers who are not attached to specialist drug squads. The concept of bifurcation (Garland 1996, 2001) is used to make sense of, ”a series of policies that appear deeply conflicted, even schizoid, in their relation to one another” (Garland 2001, pg. 110). Analysis of the ethnographic data shows how the ‘structured ambivalence’ of state responses is evident in relation to front-line policing, including the policing of drugs. We find that the backbone of modern policing, Response Teams, are being pulled towards a ‘classic’ style of policing where officers ‘act out’ and impose order through the visible exercise of their powers, reasserting the authority of the state. This is a far cry from officers in Safer Neighbourhood Teams who work predominantly on Community Policing efforts, adapting their working styles, engaging with community partners, and focusing on ‘damage limitation’ efforts. The thesis charts these different orientations in relation to officers’ general activities, before going onto show how they are visible in the way each team approaches drugs policing. From here it will be argued that the increase in recorded incidents involving drugs reflects the influence of New Public Managerialism and the focus on output-based targets. These performance targets were easily fulfilled by targeting low-level drugs offences, and once met, officers were free to police as they saw fit. Instead of officers evolving their practices as the organisation evolved, NPM allowed officers to stand firm and maintain their culture, policing practice, and sense of mission. The author accompanied both Response Teams and Safer Neighbourhood Teams of the Metropolitan Police Service during their shifts, and also conducted 23 interviews with officers. This research also developed new digital ethnography methods that might be utilised by ethnographers in other disciplines. 4 Table of Contents DECLARATION ...................................................................................................................................... 2 ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... 4 TABLE OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. 7 ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 11 1.1 WHY STUDY THIS AREA ............................................................................................................. 13 1.2 WHAT WILL BE COVERED .......................................................................................................... 16 1.3 TELLING THIS STORY ................................................................................................................. 20 CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE AND POLICY REVIEW .......................................................... 22 2.1 THE WHAT, HOW, AND WHO OF MODERN POLICING ................................................................. 23 2.1.1 What Is Policing Today, and How is it Occurring? ................................................ 23 2.1.2 A Turn Towards Community Policing and Community Confidence: ...................... 24 2.1.3 A Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing: The Role of Community Policing .............................. 25 2.1.4 The Constable and Police Culture .......................................................................... 27 2.1.5 Discretion: The Heart of Policing? ........................................................................ 31 2.2 AN ANALYSIS OF UK DRUGS POLICY: HUGS BY WAY OF HANDCUFFS? .................................... 33 2.2.1 National Level Drug Strategies .............................................................................. 34 2.2.2 Metropolitan Police Strategy Documents ............................................................... 35 2.2.3 He Who Must Not Be Named: cannabis and cannabis Warnings ........................... 37 2.2.4 A Drugs Predicament ............................................................................................. 41 2.3 NEW PUBLIC MANAGERIALISM AND POLICING ........................................................................... 42 2.3.1 Why Agencies and Governments Use Performance Management .......................... 44 2.3.2 The Challenge for NPM in Drugs and Community Policing .................................. 47 2.4 THE CRIMINOLOGICAL PREDICAMENT:....................................................................................... 48 2.4.1 A Bifurcated Approach: .......................................................................................... 49 2.4.2 Structured Ambivalence: ........................................................................................ 52 2.4.3 Criticisms of Garland: ............................................................................................ 53 2.5 CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................. 56 CHAPTER 3- METHODS ............................................................................................................ 57 3.1 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH .................................................................................................. 58 3.1.1 Interviews................................................................................................................ 60 3.1.2 Validating the Data................................................................................................. 63 3.2 GAINING ACCESS ........................................................................................................................ 67 3.2.1 Completing a Background Check ........................................................................... 68 3.2.2 Access to the Field Site ........................................................................................... 70 3.3 WATLING, “A JEWEL IN GOD’S CROWN” .................................................................................... 71 3.3.1 Police and Crime statistics of Watling.................................................................... 73 3.4 IN THE FIELD .............................................................................................................................. 73 3.4.1 Appearance ............................................................................................................. 74 5 3.4.2 Building Trust ......................................................................................................... 77 3.4.3 Risk ......................................................................................................................... 81 3.5 DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY: CREATING NEW METHODOLOGIES WITH A SMARTPHONE .................. 82 3.5.1 Software Selection .................................................................................................. 84 3.5.2 Updating Old Field Practices ................................................................................