The Impact of Labeling in Childhood on the Sense of Self of Young Adults Rosemary Solomon, BA Department of Child & Youth Studies Submitted in partial fulfillment Of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts Faculty of Social Sciences, Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario ©2015 Abstract Research studies on labeling of children have either focused on the effects of formal labels on the lives of children with exceptionalities and mental health issues, or the effect of informal labeling by parents, peers and teachers on teenagers. The effects of informal labeling in childhood and its implications in later life or for one’s career choice have not yet been examined. This study adds to the growing research on informal labeling. The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine what negative effects informal labeling of children as deviant had on their lives. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with seventeen young adults, between the ages of sixteen and thirty years, from a post-secondary institution and an organization for homeless youth. The results showed an initial negative impact on the lives of the young adults during their childhood and early teenage years but as they progressed into their late teens and early adulthood, most were able to overcome their negative labels suggesting resilience. There were no significant gender differences in the impact of the labels. The implications of the study for policy makers and parents are discussed as well as some recommendations for parents and practitioners are offered. Key words: informal labeling, sense of self, deviance, young adults, childhood i Acknowledgement My deepest gratitude goes to God Almighty for His guidance and successful completion of this thesis. With the support and guidance from the following people this thesis became a success. To my supervisor, Dr. Heather Chalmers, thank you for your direction and dedication throughout the writing process. I greatly appreciate your time, support and advice. Working with you was a great experience. To my committee members, Dr. Rebecca Raby and Dr. Voula Marinos, thank you for your time, thorough and constructive feedback. It helped improve me overall as a researcher and I am grateful. To my external examiner, Dr. Linda Rose Krasnor, thank you for your very prompt and constructive feedback. To my participants, thank you for your time and willingness to share your stories with me for which this study would have been impossible without. Thank you to my family and friends for their continuous support and prayers throughout the duration of my Master’s programme: My parents and siblings, Benjamin Adu-Boahene, Efua Boafo-Arthur, Mary Spring, Michelle Laing, Edna Abanga, Heman Anyan, Mary-Elsie Wolfe, Clarence Kalitsi, Benjamin Adu-Gyamfi, Goodness Dotse. ii Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. ii Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1 Understanding Labels ..................................................................................................... 4 Social Construction of Labels ......................................................................................... 5 Labeling Theory .............................................................................................................. 8 Power ............................................................................................................................ 16 Effect of Labels ............................................................................................................. 18 Stigma of a Label .......................................................................................................... 19 Family Impacts.............................................................................................................. 25 Gender Differences and Impacts ................................................................................... 27 Sense of Self and Identity ............................................................................................. 29 Research Question ............................................................................................................ 33 Method .............................................................................................................................. 34 Qualitative Research ..................................................................................................... 34 Methodological Framework .......................................................................................... 35 Recruitment and Participant Description ...................................................................... 36 Methods of Data Collection .......................................................................................... 41 Pilot Test ....................................................................................................................... 45 iii Data Recording ............................................................................................................. 46 Methods of Data Analysis ............................................................................................. 47 Ethical Concerns ........................................................................................................... 48 Research Findings and Discussion.................................................................................... 50 Role of Hierarchy in the Labeling Process ....................................................................... 50 Reasons for Being Labeled ............................................................................................... 52 Attention Seeking.......................................................................................................... 52 Physical Aggression ...................................................................................................... 57 Independence ................................................................................................................ 58 Parent Expectations ....................................................................................................... 60 Context of Play ............................................................................................................. 61 Impact of Labels ............................................................................................................... 63 Identity .......................................................................................................................... 63 Behaviour and Past Decisions ....................................................................................... 69 Relationships ................................................................................................................. 75 Current Decisions and Career Choices / Level of Education ....................................... 83 Contributing Factors to the Labeling ................................................................................ 93 Protective Factors.............................................................................................................. 98 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 104 Implications and Recommendations ............................................................................... 105 iv Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 106 References ....................................................................................................................... 109 Appendix A ..................................................................................................................... 119 Appendix B ..................................................................................................................... 120 Appendix C ..................................................................................................................... 123 Appendix D ..................................................................................................................... 129 Appendix E ..................................................................................................................... 132 Appendix F...................................................................................................................... 136 Appendix G ..................................................................................................................... 144 v 1 LABELING IN CHILDHOOD Introduction In all societies there are rules for governing the lives of the people. The enforcement of such rules leads to the categorization of certain behaviours as deviant when the rules are not followed. Researchers and theorists in the field of deviance have intimated that the label “deviant” is ascribed to a person as a result of the reaction to another person’s behaviour (Becker, 1963; Hagan, 1973) or to borrow the words of Simmons (1969), “deviance, like beauty, is in the eyes of the beholder” (pg, 4). This implies that a person is labeled only when another person perceives his/her behaviour as deviant. Labels are ascribed formally through agents of social