EVALUATING HUMAN THREATS TO THREE CANID SPECIES OF THE BRAZILIAN CERRADO by Stacie M. Bickley A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Environmental Science and Public Policy Committee: ____________________________________________ Dr. Elizabeth Freeman, Dissertation Director ____________________________________________ Dr. Nucharin Songsasen, Committee Member ____________________________________________ Dr. Larry Rockwood, Committee Member ____________________________________________ Dr. Michael Gilmore, Committee Member ____________________________________________ Dr. Albert Torzilli, Graduate Program Director ____________________________________________ Dr. A. Alonso Aguirre, Department Chairperson _____________________________________ Dr. Donna Fox, Associate Dean, Student Affairs & Special Programs, College of Science ____________________________________________ Dr. Peggy Agouris, Dean, College of Science Date: __________________________________ Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, A EVALUATING HUMAN THREATS TO THREE CANID SPECIES OF THE BRAZILIAN CERRADO A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Stacie M. Bickley Master of Science Georgia Southern University, 2008 Bachelor of Arts Luther College, 2005 Director: Elizabeth Freeman, Associate Professor School of Integrative Studies Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA COPYRIGHT 2016 STACIE M. BICKLEY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my Love, Ben Bickley. Ben, you have been by my side during this entire crazy journey. Every night while in the field, you patiently waited for my texts knowing I had to find the correct log to stand on in order to acquire a cellular signal. You fixed my car from 6,460 miles away and accompanied me into the field at 3:00 am to collect poop. You are a remarkable, kind, funny, and extremely patient man. I can’t imagine sharing life with anyone except you. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisors, Drs. Nucharin Songsasen and Elizabeth Freeman, for the opportunity to further develop myself as a conservation biologist. Your support, encouragement, and guidance over the past 6 years are immeasurable. I could not have asked for better pair of mentors to share a bottle of wine with. Dr. Larry Rockwood, thank you for sharing your love for ecology. Dr. Michael Gilmore, your assistance in venturing into conducting interviews was greatly appreciated. I always walked out of your office feeling a bit more confident and assured about the direction of my project. This research would not have been possible without the support of my dear friends from Programa de Conservação Mamíferos do Cerrado (aka The Avengers!): Frederico Lemos, Fernanda Azevedo, Ricardo Arrais, Alan Costa, Mozart Freitas- Junior, Fabiana Rocha, Caio Lima and Isis Candeias and field assistants Frederico Souza and Carlos Fragoso. You were my family away from home and our adventures together (chasing runaway foxes, crossing rivers, getting caught in sand storms, and several vehicle challenges) will never be forgotten. I eagerly wait for our reunion; sharing a guampa and feasting on costela while solving all the World’s problems. I would also like to thank the staff at Parque Ecológico de Americana and Parque Zoológico Municipal Quinzinho de Barros for their assistance in the ACTH and saline challenges. Dr. Marcelo Alcindo de Barros Vaz Guimarães, thank you for allowing access to your endocrinology laboratory at Universidade de São Paulo. To the laboratory staff at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Dr. Natalia Prado-Oviedo, Nicole Presley, and Steve Paris, thank you for your guidance. My fellow graduate students, ducklings, and interns, I thank you for your support in helping me complete my studies. Contributions from the following institutions also made this project possible: George Mason University, Fulbright Brazil Student Grants, Suzanne B. Engel, Jane Smith Turner Foundation, Dickerson Zoo, Maned Wolf Species Survival Plan, and Idea Wild. I would not be where I am today without the love of my husband and family. Mom, you have always believed in me; your requests of me have been to follow my dreams, keep fighting when times are tough, and live near an airport. You have never failed to tell me or show me how proud you are. Dad, Bryan, Serena, Ahna, and Isaac your constant support, laughter, and hugs have meant the world to me. My fur children Simon and Sherlock, thank you for your cuddles and keeping me company as I write this dissertation. Finally, Ben I love you to infinity and beyond. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... xii Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Literature review .............................................................................................................. 1 Brazilian Cerrado................................................................................................................................ 1 Cerrado Canid Species ...................................................................................................................... 2 Impacts of Human Disturbance .................................................................................................... 4 The Stress Response.......................................................................................................................... 7 The Nutritional Response ............................................................................................................ 10 Human-Carnivore Conflicts ......................................................................................................... 13 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: Behavior of the hoary fox (Lycalopex vetulus) to a human disturbed landscape ................................................................................................................................................ 18 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 18 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 19 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................................. 23 Study area ...................................................................................................................................... 23 Study population ......................................................................................................................... 23 Behavioral observations........................................................................................................... 24 Statistical analyses ...................................................................................................................... 25 Results ................................................................................................................................................. 27 General activity budget ............................................................................................................. 27 Vigilance behavior ...................................................................................................................... 38 Interactions ................................................................................................................................... 39 Discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 42 v Chapter 3: Validation and application of noninvasive glucocorticoid and thyroid hormone measures in the hoary fox (Lycalopex vetulus) ................................................... 51 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 51 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 52 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................................. 56 Study population ......................................................................................................................... 56 Sample collection for biological validation of fecal glucocorticoid analysis ........ 57 Sample collection for biological validation of fecal thyroid analysis ...................... 59 Influence