THE LOCATIONS AND DRIVERS OF HERPETOFAUNAL ROAD MORTALITY ON TWO HIGHWAYS WITHIN THE FRONTENAC ARCH, ONTARIO by Joshua Daniel Jones A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Environmental Studies in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Master of Environmental Studies Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (December, 2018) Copyright ©Joshua Daniel Jones, 2018 Abstract The mortality of wildlife on roads is an aspect of biological and environmental degradation that is often overlooked amidst the plethora of other threats that exist. Yet it is a very real concern, especially for species that are more susceptible to death on roadways, such as the herpetofauna. In this research, I utilized databases of herpetofauna road mortality from two highways in the Frontenac Arch region in eastern Ontario. Data from regular surveys I conducted on a 38km section of Ontario’s Highway 2 (2016 and 2017), as well as previous surveys conducted on the 37km Thousand Islands Parkway (2008 and 2010) were used to explore where and why mortality is occurring in this area. Kernel density analysis for the taxonomic groupings included in this research showed that road mortality was not random along the roads and there was spatial clustering in the form of hotspots. The hotspots of every taxonomic group overlapped in the middle of Highway 2, while hotspots on the Thousand Islands Parkway were more variable. There is an expanse of forest and wetland that intersects with the hotspot areas of Highway 2, and there was some activity on the Parkway where the road intersects this forest and wetland, but mortality is not as significantly clustered as on Highway 2. Regression tree analyses showed that, across roadways, wetland and water-related variables are important factors influencing the location of frog and toad, turtle, and watersnake mortality. An overarching trend from the results of the regression tree analyses was that mortality was generally higher in areas with lower traffic levels and in areas lacking development such as roads and urbanization. This suggests that populations in these areas may be avoiding roads, or are depressed due to prolonged exposure to roads and high traffic. ii Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank Dr. Ryan Danby for his tutelage and unwavering support throughout my time in the MES program. Ryan’s insight helped shape this work beyond any level I could attain otherwise, and I am extremely grateful for my time spent working alongside him. I would also like to thank John Urqhart for his patience, guidance and understanding throughout this entire process. Thank you to the Algonquin to Adirondacks Collaborative, specifically David Miller and Cameron Smith, as well as everyone involved with road ecology in A2A. To those that helped me with my fieldwork throughout the years, namely; Jessica Dawley, Samantha McCaul and Clay Shearer – thank you for your time spent on the roads, your willingness to help with this work and, most of all, your patience with me. I must also thank all those from the Danby lab that lent a hand when I needed it, listened as I shared my progress, and overall made this endeavour a very special experience. Specifically, I would like to thank: Mike Stefanuk, Katherine Dearborn, Greg King, Julia McCann, Mitchell Bonney, Sara Finnimore and Derek Bedford. Lastly I would like to thank all my family and friends for their support, well- wishes and direction. My parents Lori and Simon, partner Rachel, friends Kody, Chris and Jeremy – thank you for your input, edits, sympathy and encouragement. iii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Contributors ....................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Context....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Rationale .................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Goals and Objectives ................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Thesis Outline ........................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 7 2.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Road Ecology Overview ........................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Roads Divide Landscapes and Alter the Abiotic Environment .......................... 8 2.2.2 Roads Impact the Environment for Wildlife .................................................... 10 2.2.3 Herpetofauna and the Great Lakes Region ....................................................... 15 2.3 Road Mortality ........................................................................................................ 17 2.3.1 Conceptualizing Road Mortality ...................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Metrics of Road Mortality ................................................................................ 17 2.4 Modelling Approaches ............................................................................................ 20 2.4.1 Modelling Animals within the Environment .................................................... 20 2.4.2 Regression Models ........................................................................................... 22 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 3 The Locations and Drivers of Herpetofaunal Wildlife Road Mortality on Two Highways within the Frontenac Arch, Ontario ................................................................. 25 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 25 3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.1 Study Area ........................................................................................................ 28 3.2.2 Data Collection ................................................................................................. 30 iv 3.2.3 Data Processing ................................................................................................ 34 3.2.4 Regression Tree Analysis ................................................................................. 36 3.3 Results ..................................................................................................................... 44 3.3.1 Mortality Documented and Temporal Trends .................................................. 44 3.3.2 Kernel Density Analysis ................................................................................... 49 3.3.3 Regression Tree Analysis ................................................................................. 55 3.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 64 3.4.1 Mortality Documented and Temporal Trends .................................................. 65 3.4.2 Kernel Density Analysis ................................................................................... 68 3.4.3 Regression Tree Analysis ................................................................................. 71 3.4.4 Mitigation Implications .................................................................................... 78 Chapter 4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 81 4.1 Summary ................................................................................................................. 81 4.2 Future Opportunities ............................................................................................... 82 4.3 Relationship to Sustainability.................................................................................. 84 References ..................................................................................................................... 88 Appendix A Regression Tree Diagrams ......................................................................... 100 Appendix B R Code for Building Regression Trees ....................................................... 111 Appendix C All Calculated Variables............................................................................. 112 v Contributors All of the analyses presented in this work were conducted by the primary author, Joshua Jones. However a portion of the data used to complete these analyses had been collected in years