ILLUMINATING THE PATH OF DARKNESS: Social and sacred power of artificial light in Pharaonic Period Egypt This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Meghan E. Strong Girton College University of Cambridge January 2018 Illuminating the path of darkness: social and sacred power of artificial light in Pharaonic Period Egypt Meghan E. Strong ABSTRACT Light is seldom addressed in archaeological research, despite the fact that, at least in ancient Egypt, it would have impacted upon all aspects of life. When discussing light in Egyptology, the vast majority of scholarly attention is placed on the sun, the primary source of illumination. In comparison, artificial light receives very little attention, primarily due to a lack of archaeological evidence for lighting equipment prior to the 7th century BC. However, 19th and 20th century lychnological studies have exaggerated this point by placing an overwhelming emphasis on decorated lamps from the Greco-Roman Period. In an attempt to move beyond these antiquarian roots, recent scholarship has turned towards examining the role that light, both natural and artificial, played in aspects of ancient societies’ architecture, ideology and religion. The extensive body of archaeological, textual and iconographic evidence that remains from ancient Egypt is well suited to this type of study and forms three core data sets in this thesis. Combining a materials- based examination of artificial light with a contextualized, theoretical analysis contributes to a richer understanding of ancient Egyptian culture from the 3rd to 1st millennium BC. The first three chapters of this study establish a typology of known artificial lighting equipment, as well as a lexicon of lighting terminology. A comparison of the archaeological and textual evidence allows for a discussion on the consumption of lighting in ancient Egypt and its impact on social and economic spheres. From this material it becomes apparent that artificial light was a luxury and this corresponds to its inclusion in religious texts and iconography, as well as the presence of lighting implements in tombs of the wealthy elite. The second half of the thesis examines the ritual application of artificial light, incorporating iconographic and textual evidence, consideration of ritual space and timing, and experimental archaeology. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a discussion of the sensory experience of artificial lighting and its perceived potency in ancient Egypt. It also demonstrates the contribution that Egyptology can make to lychnological and sensory studies of the ancient Near East and Mediterranean by examining the impact of light on phenomenology and aesthetics. i Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work undertaken while a doctoral student in the Department of Archaeology and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. Statement of Length This dissertation does not exceed the prescribed word limit of 80,000 words (approx. 350 pages), plus a 10,000 word extension approved by the Archaeology Degree Committee and the Student Registry. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It takes a number of patient, intelligent, encouraging individuals to produce a PhD thesis. I was very fortunate to have Dr. Kate Spence as my supervisor throughout this endeavor and am incredibly grateful for her guidance, enthusiasm and understanding. I owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Hratch Papazian, my advisor, who calmly handled all my philological crises. My three years of research were supported by generous grants from the Thomas Mulvey Fund. Fieldwork funding was provided by the H. M. Chadwick Fund, and conference travel was made possible through the Pillman Fund at Girton College, the Marlay Travel Fund at the Fitzwilliam Museum and a travel grant through the Division of Archaeology. I must thank Dr. Cédric Gobeil for facilitating access to tombs at Deir el-Medina and for welcoming me onto his mission for the 2017 season. Dr. Laurent Bavay was kind enough to handle all the red tape of security permissions and post-season reporting. Special thanks go to Dr. Lila Janik for funding a time-lapse camera for my fieldwork. Many thanks to Tracey Golding, Liam McNamara, Adela Oppenheim, Alice Stevenson and Alice Williams for facilitating objects research and photography at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, Ashmolean Museum and Metropolitan Museum of Art. I owe an enormous “thank you” to the staff of the Fitzwilliam Museum, particularly the researchers and collaborators on the Ancient Egyptian Coffins Project: Julie Dawson, Elsbeth Geldhof, Jennifer Marchant and Helen Strudwick. Many colleagues, including Janine Bourriau, Alan Clapham, Mennat Allah el-Dorry, Renée Friedman, Peter French, Friederike Junge, Giulio Lucarini, Cornelius von Pilgrim, Pam Rose, Anna Stevens, Nigel Strudwick and Kent Weeks shared their knowledge, references and site material over the course of the PhD and my thesis only benefited from their insights. Thank you to Will Schenck for the beautiful drawings, to my fellow PhD candidates for the much needed laughs, and to my Egyptology colleagues who kept pushing me forward. I am extremely grateful to my family and friends, particularly my Dad, for loving and supporting me, even if that means I frequently live on the other side of the Atlantic. To Helen, Ivan and Matt, thank you for providing good conversation, wine and chocolate in appropriate measure. And of course, Drew, I would never have started or finished without your unending support. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract........................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. ix List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 1. Research objectives .............................................................................................................................. 4 2. Thesis structure .................................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2 – ARCHAEOLOGY OF LIGHT ............................................................................................... 9 1. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 12 2. Non-spouted open vessel lamps ...................................................................................................... 15 2.1 Definite examples of non-spouted open vessel lamps with wick remains and/or traces of illuminant ............................................................................................................................................ 15 2.2 Probable non-spouted open vessel lamp examples with burn marks .................................. 27 2.3 Probable non-spouted open vessel lamp examples with wick anchors ............................... 32 2.4 Possible non-spouted open vessel lamp examples .................................................................. 43 2.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 47 3. Spouted open vessel lamps ............................................................................................................... 49 3.1 Definite spouted open vessel lamp examples with wick remains and/or traces of illuminant ............................................................................................................................................ 50 3.2 Probable spouted open vessel lamp examples with burn marks .......................................... 54 3.3 Possible spouted open vessel lamp examples .......................................................................... 57 3.4 Possible multi-spouted open vessel lamp examples ............................................................... 59 3.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 61 iv 4. Wick-on-stick devices .......................................................................................................................