Booth “Prior editions of Understanding Central America had become the classic work in the field, both in the classroom and as an academic reference. This new edition is a major upgrade, not only involving updating of events, but rethinking the Wade Wade theoretical issues that are at the heart of any understanding of the region. A ‘must read’ for anyone interested in this complex and volatile area of the world.” —Mitchell A. SeligSon, VAnderbilt UniVerSity Understanding Walker “Understanding Central America remains the most comprehensive and indispensable textbook for courses on Central American politics. It offers a classic interpretation of the roots of civil wars and U.S. interventions in late twentieth-century Central Central America. This new edition has been reorganized and updated to address the region’s post-war issues of the twenty-first century, incorporating new scholarship relevant for analysis over the long run.” Central —Susanne Jonas, UniVerSity of cAliforniA, SAntA crUz Understanding Understanding ameriCa “This volume is without doubt the best comprehensive examination of Central F i F t h E d i t i o n American politics and society. The book represents a good balance between an intellectually sophisticated analysis and a clear, concise approach readily accessible for undergraduate students.” —orlAndo J. Pérez, centrAl MichigAn UniVerSity; PreSident, MidweSt AssociAtion for lAtin AMericAn StUdieS Understanding Central America explains how domestic and global political and economic forces have shaped rebellion and regime change in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. a Including analysis of the 2009 Honduran coup d’état, this revised edition brings the Central American story up to date, with special emphasis on globalization, evolving public opinion, progress toward me democratic consolidation, and the relationship between Central America and the United States under the Obama administration. A comprehensive introduction to the region and a model for how to convey its complexities in language readers will comprehend, Understanding Central America stands out as a must-have resource. ri John a. Booth Christine J. Wade thomas W. Walker C is Regents Professor of Political is Associate Professor is Professor Emeritus of Political a Science at the University of North of Political Science and Science and Director Emeritus Texas. He is the author of Costa International Studies at of Latin American Studies at Rica: Quest for Democracy and Washington College. Ohio University. He is the author coauthor of The Legitimacy Puzzle of Nicaragua: Living in the in Latin America. Shadow of the Eagle. E d i t i o n F i CmOver I agE © Antonio Aragon/epA/Corbis F COver Design: mIGUEL Santana & WenDy Halitzer t h Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change John A. Booth Christine J. Wade Thomas W. Walker A Member of the Perseus Books Group www.westviewpress.com www.perseusacademic.com 9780813344218-Booth_mech.indd 1 12/9/09 11:14 AM 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page i Understanding Central America Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change Fifth Edition John A. Booth University of North Texas Christine J. Wade Washington College Thomas W. Walker Ohio University A Member of the Perseus Books Group 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page ii Copyright © 2010 by Westview Press Published by Westview Press, A Member of the Perseus Books Group All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Westview Press, 2465 Central Avenue, Boulder, CO 80301. Find us on the World Wide Web at www.westviewpress.com. Every effort has been made to secure required permissions to use all images, maps, and other art included in this volume. Westview Press books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the United States by corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more information, please contact the Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 2300 Chestnut Street, Suite 200, Philadelphia, PA 19103, or call (800) 810-4145, ext. 5000, or e-mail [email protected]. Designed by Pauline Brown Typeset in 10-point Minion. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Booth, John A., 1946– Understanding Central America: global forces, rebellion and change / John A. Booth, Christine J. Wade, Thomas W. Walker. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8133-4421-8 (alk. paper) 1. Central America—History—1951–1979. 2. Central America—History—1979– 3. Political stability—Central America—History—20th century. 4. Democratization—Central America— History—20th century. 5. Social conflict—Central America—History—20th century. 6. Revolutions—Central America—History—20th century. I. Wade, Christine J. II. Walker, Thomas W., 1940– III. Title. F1439.B66 2010 972.8'03—dc22 2009035866 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page iii To Patti, to Greg, and to Anne 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page iv 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 11/4/09 2:49 PM Page v Contents List of Tables and Illustrations ix Preface to the Fifth Edition xi Acknowledgments xiii List of Acronyms xv 1 Crisis and Transformation 1 2 Global Forces and System Change in Central America 15 Poverty and Its Causes 17 Regime Change in Central America 28 Discussion 42 3 The Common History 47 Conquest to 1838 47 1838 to the Present 51 4 Costa Rica 61 Historical Background 62 Weathering Global Forces 65 The Economic Development Model Transformed 69 Changes in Politics and Parties 72 Contemporary Costa Rican Politics 75 Conclusions 77 v 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page vi vi Contents 5 Nicaragua 81 Historical Background 81 Global Forces and Insurrection 84 The Revolution 88 Replacing the Revolution 97 Contemporary Nicaraguan Politics 102 Conclusions 107 6 El Salvador 111 Historical Background 111 Global Forces and Insurrection 114 Government and Politics Since the Peace Accord 126 Conclusions 133 7 Guatemala 135 Historical Background 135 Global Forces and Conflict 139 The Civilian Transitional Regime and the Civil War 144 The Peace Accords and Contemporary Guatemalan Politics 148 Conclusions 156 8 Honduras 159 Historical Background 159 Weathering Global Forces 163 Contemporary Honduran Politics 171 Conclusions 177 9 Political Participation, Political Attitudes, and Democracy 181 Citizen Participation 182 Citizen Attitudes 191 Factors Shaping Attitudes and Participation 198 Conclusions 205 10 Power, Democracy, and US Policy in Central America 211 The Problem of Power 212 Democracy 213 Mobilization 215 The Roots of US Policy in Central America 219 Communism in Central America 222 Demobilization in Central America 225 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page vii Contents vii US Policy in the Post–Cold War Period 233 Conclusions 239 11 Reflections and Projections 243 Relections: Repression, Mobilization, and Democratic Transition 243 Projections: Prospects for Democratic Consolidation 248 Conclusions 263 Appendix 267 Notes 279 About the Authors 325 Index 327 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page viii 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page ix Tables and Illustrations Tables 1.1 Basic Socioeconomic Data on Central American Countries 8 2.1 Dynamics of Poverty in Central America 19 2.2 Recent Economic Data on Central American Governments 26 2.3 Central American Regime Types, 1970–2009 30 9.1 Political Participation Rates, Central American Nations, 2008 183 9.2 Political Attitudes, Central American Nations, 2008 192 9.3 Possible Sources of Low Legitimacy Norms Among Central Americans 201 A.1 Selected Economic Data for Central America, by Country, 1960–2008 268 A.2 Selected Social Data for Central America, by Country, 1960–2004 270 A.3 Mean Annual US Military and Economic Assistance to Central America, 1946–1992 272 ix 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 10/22/09 4:17 PM Page x x Tables and Illustrations A.4 Central American Rebel Groups, 1959–1989 273 A.5 Comparative Data on Central Government Expenditures 274 A.6 Selected Presidential Election Results by Percentage of Valid Vote, Central America 274 A.7 Distribution of Legislative Seats by Party Resulting from Legislative Elections, Central American Countries 276 Figures 2.1 Change in Democracy Levels from the Early 1980s to the Early 2000s 43 2.2 Evolution of Political Violence and Repression over Time 44 9.1 Effects of Low, Mixed, and High Legitimacy on Attitudes and Political Behavior, Central America, 2008 205 Photographs Central Americans 12 The Triumph 89 The Contra War 92 The End of an Era 99 Primero de Mayo (May Day) Demonstration in El Salvador, 1988 123 FMLN Rebels 125 Coming to a Head in November 1989 127 Grassroots Mobilization 217 Sociopolitical Demobilization 231 Map Central America xxiv 9780813344218-Booth.qxd:6 x 9 11/4/09 2:49 PM Page xi Preface to the Fifth Edition We have extensively updated this edition of Understanding Central America from the fourth edition. For the fourth edition, multiple transformations of the region—the formal democratization of several countries, the end of several civil wars, and the adoption of new, neoliberal economic development models— required a major rearrangement of the book. This fifth edition follows the same organization as the fourth but contains extensively updated chapters to incorpo- rate developments up through November 2009, including the Honduran coup d’état of June 2009 and its domestic and diplomatic aftermath. Chapter 9, on po- litical participation and public opinion, integrates new survey data on the region from 2008, and, where possible, traces trends in behavior and attitudes from the 1990s through 2008.