STUDY OF SEX TRAFFICKING IN NAMIBIA A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY MERAB KAMBAMU KIREMIRE DECEMBER 2010 Main Supervisor: Dr. Volker Winterfeldt Co-supervisor: Prof. Pempelani Mufune 1 Sex Trafficking in Namibia Merab Kambamu Kiremire (ii) Abstract The researcher investigated the existence, prevalence and causes of trafficking for sexual exploitation in Namibia, as well as its impact and effects on both its victims and society as a whole. Due to the complexity and dangerous nature of her topic of study, she utilised a unique method in which she identifies and capacitates specific members of the study’s target group to lead her into areas which would otherwise be too difficult for her to reach and involving them in data collection. For validity and authenticity purposes, the research was both quantitative and qualitative in nature. It combined different social research data collection techniques by administering standardized validated questionnaires to 230 respondents during in-person interviews as well as carrying out systematic field observations in key areas in 18 out of the 35 of the country’s regional metropolises and border posts from where it collected information provided by 6 Focus Group Discussion Meetings (FGDMs) and 32 key informants. This was complemented by compilation of 18 case studies representing real life stories of possible victims of human trafficking. 2 The study was able to establish that while sex trafficking as a social phenomenon exists in the country, there was little public awareness about it. Whereas the phenomenon was found fairly new, it was also found growing fast mainly among women, young adolescents and children living in specially difficult circumstances such as unemployed school drop-outs and orphaned youths mainly due to deep-rooted social, economic and gender inequalities. Its consequences included physical, health and moral hazards such as diseases that included sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS, gender-based violence and abandonment and homelessness. Finally, the study makes some recommendations for policy and legislative prevention and protection measures, as well as practical service delivery interventions particularly in terms of public awareness building in order to reduce social, economic and gender inequality that serve to promote the problem. 3 Map No.1: Map of Namibia with its Regions, Cities and Towns 4 (iii) Table of Contents Topic Page (i) Title Page: …………………………………………………………………………………......1 (ii) Abstract: ……………………………………………………………………………………... 2 (iii) Table of Contents: …………………………………………………....................................... 5 (iv) Acknowledgements: …………………………………………………….…………………. 12 (v) Dedication: ………………………………………………………………………..................13 (vi) Declaration: …………………………………………………………………………………14 (vii) List of Acronyms: ………………………………………………………………………….15 CHAPTER 1: Introduction: ……………………………………………………20 1.1. Background and Justification of the Study: ………….……………………………………..20 1.2. Sex Trafficking Concepts and Operational Definitions: ……………....................................23 Trafficking: ………………………………………………………………............................25 Prostitution: ………………………………………………………………............................27 Exploitation: ………………………………………………………………………………...30 1.3. Statement of the Problem: …………………………………………………………………..32 Lack of Adequate Evidence of Trafficking in Persons: …………………………………….32 Contradictory Research Findings: …………………………………………………………..34 The disconnect between Social and Economic Mobility and the HI Virus Spread: …..........34 Lack of Adequate Legislation: ……………………………………………………………...35 1.4. Objective of the Study: ……………………………………………………………………..36 1.5. Importance of the Study: ……………………………………………………………………37 1.6. The Main Study Question: ………………………………………………………………….39 1.7. Working Hypothesis: ……………………………………………………………………….40 1.8. Organization of the Thesis: ……………………………………………………………........41 CHAPTER 2: Exploration of Literature: ……………………………………43 2.1. Introduction: ………………………………………………………………………………..43 2.2. History, Prevalence and Causes of Human Trafficking: …………………………………...44 2.3. The Link between Trafficking, Prostitution and Exploitation: ……………………………..47 2.4. Consequences of Trafficking, Prostitution and Exploitation in Africa: ……………………49 2.5. Trafficking in Persons as a Major Problem in Southern Africa: …………………………...52 2.6. Theoretical Framework: The Link between Societies in Transition and Social Economic Vulnerability of Women and Children: …………………………………………57 2.7. Human Trafficking: The Namibian Context: …………………………………………........65 The Legal System and Legal Protection of Women: ……………………………………….65 (a) At National Level: …………………………………………………………………….65 (b) At International Level: ………………………………………………………………..65 (c) At Regional Level: ………………………………………………………………........66 (d) At Sub-Regional Level: ……………………………………………………………….66 Gender-Based-Violence: ……………………………………………………………………67 Child Protection: ………………………………………………………………………........71 5 Child Labour: ………………………………………………………………………….........72 Law Enforcement: ……………………………………………………………………….....73 Crime: …………………………………………………………………………………........73 Alcohol Abuse: …………………………………………………………………………......74 Drug Trafficking: …………………………………………………………………………...75 Gayism: ………………………………………………………………………………..........78 2.8. Prostitution and Trafficking for Exploitation Purposes in Namibia: ………………….........79 2.9. Consequences of Human Trafficking in Namibia: …………………………………………92 State Protections against Sexual Exploitation………………………………………………95 Constitutional, Legal and Judicial Protections: ………………………………………........95 Challenges to Legal and Judicial Protections: ……………………………………..............97 (a) Limitations of the Law: ………………………………………………………………98 (b) Definitional Inconsistencies and/or Contradictions: ………………………………..100 (c) Policy Protections …………………………………………………………………...100 (d) Care, Support and Service Delivery: …………………………………………..........101 (e) The Link to 2010 FIFA World Cup Games: ………………………………………..103 2.10. Conclusions: ……………………………………………………………………………..103 CHAPTER 3: Methodology …………………………………………………..106 3.1. Site Selections and Descriptions: ………………………………………………………….106 Background to the Study: …………………………………………………………………106 3.2. Research Design: ………………………………………………………………………….115 Demarcation of the Study: ………………………………………………………………..115 3.3. Study Sample and Selection Processes: ………………………….......................................118 Target Issues: ……………………………………………………………………………...118 The Research Sample Size: ………………………………………………………………..119 3.4. Methods of Data Collection: ………………………………………………………………121 Data Sources: ……………………………………………………………………………...121 (a) Quantitative Data: ……………………………………………………………………122 (b) Qualitative Data: …………………………………………………………………….123 (c) Institutions Visited: ………………………………………………………………….126 3.5. Data Collection Processes: ………………………………………………………………..126 Data Reliability and Validity: …………………………………………………………….126 Unique Method: …………………………………………………………………………..128 The Research Team: ………………………………………………………………………128 3.6. Method of Data Analysis: …………………………………………………………………128 3.7. Ethical Issues: ……………………………………………………………………………..130 3.8. Limitation of the Study: …………………………………………………………………..131 The Nature of Sex Trafficking, Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation as Underground Dangerous Social Activities: ……………………………………………………………….131 Inadequate and Disjointed Reference Sources: .………………………..…………….........132 Large Scope of the Study against Limited Resources: ……………………………….........132 3.9. Conclusion: ………………………………………………………………………………..133 CHAPTER 4: Presentation and Interpretation of Findings: ……………..134 4.1. Introduction: ……………………………………………………………………………….134 6 4.2. Prevalence of Sex Trafficking in Namibia: ….....................................................................134 Who Had Experienced Sex Trafficking: …………………………………………………..134 In Country Trafficking: ………………………………………………………...................136 Destinations: ………………………………………………………………………………137 Namibia is a Transit and Destination Country:……………………………………………138 The Sub-Regional and Regional Perspective: ......................................................................138 The International Scope of Sex Trafficking in Namibia: …….............................................138 4.3. Extent and Impact: ……………………………………………….......................................139 Nationalities: ………………………………………………………………………………139 Trafficking Routes: ……………………………………………………………………......140 Mode of Travel: …………………………………………..……………….........................140 Travel Documents: …………………………………………...............................................141 Sex Traffickers: …………………………………………………………............................141 4.4. Causes of Sex Trafficking: ………………………………………………………………...142 Vulnerability of Prostitutes to Sex Trafficking: ……………………………………...........142 Sex Trafficking as Gendered:……………………………………………………………...143 The Link between Sex, Labour and Child Trafficking: …………………………………...144 4.5. Consequences: …………………………………………………..........................................145 The Relationship between Sex Traffickers and their Victims: ……………………………145 Did Trafficked Prostitutes find their Prostitution Activities Profitable? …………………147 Dangers and Risks: ……………………………………………………………………......148 The Link between Sex Trafficking and HIV/AIDS: ………………………………………150 When Parasitism and Symbiosis Clash: …………………...................................................152 4.6. Respondents’ Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics: .....................................154 Prostitution