17 Isolated and Confined Environments Carole Tafforin Ethospace, Toulouse, France Characteristics of space analogue environments with regard to human per- formance concern the crew adaptation in a socio-psychological context and in a temporal dynamics. Isolation, confinement and time are major features on Earth to reproduce an extra-terrestrial environment for manned mission simulations. In the current space missions (low Earth orbit, LEO) and in the perspective of interplanetary missions (near-Earth asteroid, Moon, Mars), men and women will have to adapt to social constraints (crew size, multinationality, mixed-gender) and spatial restrictions (volume, multi-chambers, life-support) on short-term, medium-term and long-term durations. The crewmembers also will have to perform intra-vehicular activities (IVA)and extra-vehicular activ- ities (EVA). For training, preventing and optimizing such tasks, simulations of living and working together in isolated and confined environments, and simulations of operating with a space suit on geological surfaces are the new requirements. During the two decades (1991–2011), space simulators (confinement) and analogue settings (isolation) were adequately developed on Earth with the ultimate goal of walking on Mars. Time periods extended up to 500 days. Space analogue environments are located worldwide (Canada, United States, Russia, Europe, Antarctica and Arctic). Mission durations in space analogue environments cover days, weeks and years. Isolation and confinement facilities implemented for such simulations are listed in Table 17.1. Over a 7-day duration, the Canadian Astronaut Program Space Unit Life Simulation (CAPSULS) was an Earth-based initiative that simulated a typical space shuttle or space station mission [1]. CAPSULS provided the Canadian astronaut participants with space mission training. The facility was a solid 173 174 Table 17.1 Isolation and confinement facilities implemented for such simulations Crew Isolated and Confined Environments Name Type Site Year Size Nationality Gender Volume Duration ISEMSI Multi-chamber Bergen, 1990 6 European Males 118 m3 28 days Norway EXEMSI Multi-chamber Cologne, 1992 4 European Males 95 m3 60 days Germany HUBES Multi-chamber Moscow 1994 3 Russian Males 100 m3 135 days Russia BIOSPHERE 2 Desert station Arizona, USA 1991 8 Multi- Mixed 1.27 ha 730 days 1994 7 Multi- Mixed (surface) 6 months CAPSULS Hyperbaric Toronto 1994 4 Canadian Mixed 33 m3 7 days chamber Canada SFINCSS Multi-chamber Moscow 1999–2000 33×2 Russian Males 100 m3 240 days Russia Multi- Mixed 200 m3 110 days FMARS Polar station Devon Is. 2000–2007 6–7 Multi- Mixed 416 m3 7 days-4 Canada months NEEMO Undersea Florida, USA 2001–2004 6–9 American Mixed 401 m3 6–12 days missions MDRS Desert station Utah, USA 2002 6–8 Multi- Mixed 500 m3 15 days CONCORDIA Polar station Dome C, 2006– 10 French, Mixed 1,500 m2 8 months Antarctic Italian TARA Polar ship Ice pack, 2008 10 Multi- Mixed 36 m 507 days Arctic MARS-500 Multi-chamber Moscow, 2010–2011 6 Multi- Males 550 m3 520 days Russia Isolated and Confined Environments 175 steel hyperbaric chamber that was comprised of two primary modules, the habitat module and the experiment module, which were connected by a smaller transfer chamber. During the simulation, crew inside monitored and controlled life-support parameters (temperature, humidity, pressure of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor). CAPSULS involved national (Canadian) mixed-gender and small-size crew for short-term simulations. They emphasized social and personality issues of adaptation. Over a 6- to 12-day duration, NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO) project was an analogue mission that sent groups of astronauts, engineers and scientists to live in Aquarius, the world’s only undersea research station [2]. The Aquarius habitat and its surroundings provide a hostile environment with the risk of decompression sickness in depth immersion. NEEMO crewmembers, named Aquanauts, experienced some of the same challenges that they would on a distant asteroid or on Moon. During NEEMO missions, the aquanauts simulated living on a spacecraft and tested spacewalk techniques. Crew size was equivalent to a real space crew. Like CAPSULS, there were mainly national (USA) but mixed-gender crew and for short-term simulations. Underwater condition had the additional benefit to simulate a microgravity environment by buoyancy. The peculiarity Figure 17.1 Tara expedition in Arctic (Image c F. Latreille/Tara expédition). 176 Isolated and Confined Environments of NEEMO is that crewmembers participated in undersea sessions of EVAand used autonomous life-support systems during IVA (Kanas et al. 2010). Over a 15-day duration, Mars Research Desert Station (MDRS) was one of four stations planned by the International Mars Society [3] which has established a number of prototype Mars Habitat Units around the world. MDRS is a 2-deck facility providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars or Moon crew. The upper deck includes sleeping quarters, a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area and hygiene facilities with closed-circle water purification. The lower deck includes the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research, storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of planets, and a suiting-up area where crewmembers pre- pare for surface operations. MDRS also involved small-size but multinational and mixed-gender crews, for longer-term simulations. They thus emphasized cultural issues. The specificity is EVA while walking in a desert landscape mimicking a Mars landscape. Over a 28-day duration, Isolation Study for the European Manned Space Infrastructure (ISEMSI) was one of three European campaigns implemented as precursor flights regarding medium-term orbital stays [4]. ISEMSI was a confined habitat in multi-chamber facilities composed of 6 modules.Two small modules served as sleeping chambers, the larger module served as working and living chamber, one module was used as sanitary, one module acted as a transfer lock and storage and one module was a rescue chamber fully equipped to maintain life-support functions under pressure. As in NEEMO and MDRS, the crew size was as expected for space mission and space exploration but Figure 17.2 Concordia station in Antarctica (Image c IPEV). Isolated and Confined Environments 177 with only male crewmembers. ISEMSI campaign was specifically designed for psychological and physiological issues on long-duration manned space mission. Over a 60-day duration, Experimental Campaign for the European Manned Space Infrastructure (EXEMSI) prolonged ISEMSI campaign, thus doubling the time spent in a confined habitat. The overall facility consisted of two main modules serving respectively as the habitat and the laboratory module for carrying out scientific investigations and teleoperations, completed with two transfer and storage modules [5]. The living quarters containing bunks and a table were used for sleeping, eating and leisure time. In the panel of confined and isolated settings, ISEMSI had the smallest volume and the smallest crew size. It differed from NEEMO and MDRS because it provided only IVA but promoted further advances on long-duration manned space mission. Over a 135-day duration, Human Behavior in Extended Spaceflight (HUBES) prolonged ISEMSI and EXEMSI campaigns and was definitely considered as a space simulator for extended periods [6]. The confined habitat was designed as a unique module, thus sharing living area, working area and storage area in a small volume compared to CAPSULS. HUBES had the benefit to reproduce real mission aboard the Mir orbital station and crew transfer flight considering the very small crew size consisting of Russian and male-only crewmembers. HUBES was a ground-based simulation aimed at comparing and validating psychological issues in crew selection, training, monitoring and in-orbit support flight. Over a 4-month duration, Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) hosted a long-duration mission that quadrupled the in situ sim- ulation of both confinement and isolation. Its geographic location, the polar Figure 17.3 Mars Desert Research Station in Utah/USA (Image c Ethospace). 178 Isolated and Confined Environments desert, is the largest uninhabited island in the world [7]. The 24-h daylight is analogous to that of a polar Moon or Mars mission. FMARS and MDRS have the same Mars Habitat Unit. The difference is the simulation of Mars-Earth latency to a 20-min delay and the tightly life-support since water use was restricted and monitored. However, the facility was not hermetically locked as enforced during NEEMO mission. Important analogue features of FMARS were EVAs and the hostile surroundings in Arctic. The multinational and mixed-gender composition of the crew properly simulated future isolated and confined crews who would land on asteroids, Moon or Mars. Over a 110 to 240-day duration, Simulation for Flight of International Crew on Space Station (SFINCSS) was devoted to determine the extent to which monotony may impair individual performance, physical rate and transcultural crew performance. The facilities consisted of either one main chamber or two chambers; separated groups lived on a schedule typical for Mir station crews then on a fixed work–rest schedule mimicking International Space Station (ISS) assembly operations [8]. Specific feature of SFINCSS was the participation of several small-size and multinational crews.