University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/36376 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. LONE OR ALONE? A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF LONE MOTHERS ON LOW INCOME WITH REFERENCE TO SUPPORT IN THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES By Josephine Patricia Dearlove BA (Hons) Sociology / Social Policy Thesis submitted for the qualification of PhD University of Warwick Department of Social Policy and Social Work March 1999 ABSTRACT The thesis invites women to voice their perceptions and experiences on being lone mothers, in receipt of Income Support and what 'support' means to them in their daily lives as carers of pre-school children. This qualitative study is set against firstly, the backdrop of the increasing numbers of lone mothers and their reliance on income support. Also prevalent was a negative discourse around lone motherhood. Secondly, lone mothers were encountering the consequences of a restructuring of social and welfare policy and practice, with the changing boundaries between public and private responsibilities impacting on their daily lives. Thirdly, within this changing socio-economic and political landscape, both neo-liberal and 'third way' governments identify kinship as the appropriate resource for families in need. The study draws data and analysis from the perceptions and experiences of, initially, thirty-three women in five focus groups and more particularly, from thirty- seven lone mothers on Income Support. The findings of the thesis highlight the qualitative difference between alone and not alone, lone mothers. This key, but previously under- researched distinction, is shown to turn on the quality and consistency of support. It is the degrees of availability or lack of social and material support which is found to be crucial in mediating, moderating or amplifying the aloneness of the lone mother. The research illustrates how this qualitative difference in women's lives cannot be captured within categories of quantitative data. Emphasised is how different forms of support serve as gateways through which other forms of support are accessed. What is argued is that those lacking support may face being multiply disadvantaged and experience cumulative levels of support deprivation which formal support may do little to alleviate. Lastly, while all forms of support are identified as being mutually reinforcing, child-care appears to be particularly pivotal. As a central gateway to accessing other support, it directly enhances well being and the capability to care. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the women who participated in all the stages of the research process. Their generosity of spirit, time and openness can never be repaid. With dignity and respect I thank them unreservedly. Much thanks is accorded to my two supervisors, Hilary Graham and Helen Roberts for their guidance and support as well as the three official mentors, Gill Bendilow, John Harris and very particularly Clare Blackburn, who in my supervisor's stead, oversaw my welfare at Warwick. This work has been possible because of the support, encouragement, and stimulation of many people who I have been privileged to encounter. Too numerous to mention personally I can only thank generally the staff of Barnardos' PDU, the projects where I undertook my research and the Social Policy and Social Work Department at Warwick. Chris, Hilary, Lis and Sonia, as well as my student colleagues, deserve special credit. This whole research project, through my own shortcomings, may remain inadequate but it would have been impoverished without others around me. Much is owed to family and friends throughout the country and in particular in Binningham, Middlesbrough and London. Particularly, I thank Judy Scully and Alan Dolan, who along with Lorraine, gave moral and practical support throughout. Special mention is reserved for my own support group of Jim, Jean, Kevin, Dave and Frank whose solidarity and vision always inspires, forms and keeps me going. CONTENTS Acknowledgements List of figures x List of tables xi Abbreviations xii 1. Introduction: Lone or alone? A qualitative study of lone mothers on low income with reference to support in their everyday lives 1 2. Circumstances shaping the lives of lone mothers 1. Introduction 14 2. Social, Demographic and Economic Changes 15 2.1 Wider demographic changes 16 2.2 Problems of definitions and categories 17 2.3 Number of lone mother families 21 2.4 Ethnicity 21 2.5 Changing marital status 22 2.6 Age of mothers and children 22 2.7 Economic activity 23 2.8 Maintenance 24 2.9 Tenure 25 2.10 Lone parents' reliance on Income Support 26 3. Policy changes affecting low income households 28 3.1 Changing income levels 28 3.2 Changing value of income 30 3.3 Changing levels of outlay 31 3.4 Expenditure costs 33 4. Changing political context 34 4.1 Lone mother discourse 35 4.2 Welfare changes: the 'New Right' 36 4.3 Welfare changes: the 'Third Way' 38 4.4 The New Deal 40 4.5 Supporting families 42 5. Conclusion 43 3. Literature review: What poverty, support and kinship studies add to our understanding of mothers being lone or alone 1. Introduction 45 2. Review of poverty literature 46 3. Definitions of poverty 47 3.1 Poverty definitions 48 3.2 Social exclusion 51 4. Proxy measures of socio-economic status 52 4.1 Cars as proxy indicators 53 4.2 Telephones as proxy indicators 54 5. Inadequacy of income support benefit 57 5.1 Inadequate Income Support levels 57 5.2 The experience and management of surviving in poverty 59 5.3 Protection of children and concealment of poverty 60 6. Inter-household resources 62 6.1 The need for the material resources of others 62 6.2 Social capital 65 7. Summaty of poverty review 68 8. Review of support literature 69 9. Definitions of social support 71 9.1 Diversity of social support definitions 71 9.2 Support in context 72 9.3 Support perspectives of research participants 73 10. Importance of support elements 75 10.1 Ranking elements of support 76 10.2 Interrelational elements of support 77 11. Social networks 80 11.1 Definition of a social network 80 11.2 Difficulties in analysing networks 81 11.3 Network availability 82 12. Views of providers 85 12.1 Divergent perspectives of users and providers 86 12.2 Gendering of support needs 86 12.3 Individualising responses of support 88 13. Summary of support review 91 14. Review of kin literature 92 15. State and family responsibilities 93 15.1 Changing boundaries between state and family 93 16. Definitions and critiques of kin 95 16.1 Definition of kin 95 16.2 Difficulties in defining kin 95 17. Significant kin 98 17.1 Mother - daughter relationship 98 17.2 A need for kin access with the birth of a child 100 18. Significant kin in the absence of a woman's own mother 100 18.1 Access to mothers-in-law 101 18.2 Access to mothers-in-law for widows and divorcees 101 18.3 Access to kin for single lone mothers 104 18.4 Child's father as access to kin 106 19. Lacking access to possible significant people 107 19.1 Maternal mother's role in accessing other kin 107 20. Summary of kin literature 109 21. Conclusion of literature review 110 • 4. Inviting women to voice their perceptions and experiences: The data collection process and the women involved 1. Introduction 112 2. Study design 113 2.1 Lone mother as a sample characteristic 113 2.2 Lone mother household as a sample characteristic 114 2.3 Income Support as a sample characteristic 115 2.4 Pre-school child(ren) as a sample characteristic 116 3. Methods of data collection 116 3.1 Focus groups 117 3.2 Focus group access 118 3.3 The topic guide 121 3.4 Analysis of focus group discussions 124 3.5 Recruitment of interviewees 125 3.6 Contacting interviewees 127 3.7 Interview schedule 128 4. Analysis of individual interviews 129 4.1 The generating of concepts and themes 129 4.2 Difficulties of measuring supportiveness 131 4.3 Grounded theory 132 5. Ethical considerations 133 5.1 Confidentiality 134 5.2 Child protection protocol 135 5.3 Anonymity in this thesis 138 6. Personal reflections 139 6.1 A part of and apart from, being 'in the field' 139 6.2 How interviewees felt about the interviews 141 6.3 Inappropriate questions • 143 7. Socio-demographic, economic and household characteristics 145 7.1 Focus group participants 145 7.1.1 Ethnicity 146 7.1.2 Age of women 147 7.1.3 Tenure 148 7.1.4 Years on benefit 149 7.1.5 Access to cars or vans 150 7.1.6 Access to telephones 151 7.2 Individual interviewees 152 7.2.1 Ethnicity 153 7.2.2 Age of women 154 7.2.3 Tenure 155 7.2.4 Years on benefit 156 7.2.5 Access to car and vans 157 7.2.6 Access to telephones 158 7.2.7 Number and age range of children 159 8. Conclusion 161 5. A lone mother or alone in her mothering? Perceptions and experiences of 'lone' motherhood 1. Introduction 162 2. Differences and similarities between lone and partnered mothers 163 2.1 Resisting negative stereotypes 164 2.2 Resisting the 'scrounger' label 164 2.3 Resisting the 'babies for flats' label 165 2.4 Resisting the 'choosing to be lone mothers' label 166 2.5 Resisting the 'immoral' label 166 2.6 Negative stereotype and mothering 167 2.7 Similarities with two parent households 169 2.8 Partners supporting lone mothers 170 2.9 Partners not supporting lone mothers 170 2.10 Experience of support in two parent households 172 3.