Southern Methodist University SMU Scholar Religious Studies Theses and Dissertations Religious Studies Winter 12-21-2019 The Unmarried (M)Other: A Study of Christianity, Capitalism, and Counternarratives Concerning Motherhood and Marriage in the United States and South Africa Haley Feuerbacher Southern Methodist University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.smu.edu/religious_studies_etds Part of the Africana Studies Commons, Christian Denominations and Sects Commons, Christianity Commons, Ethics in Religion Commons, Missions and World Christianity Commons, Other Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, Practical Theology Commons, Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Feuerbacher, Haley, "The Unmarried (M)Other: A Study of Christianity, Capitalism, and Counternarratives Concerning Motherhood and Marriage in the United States and South Africa" (2019). Religious Studies Theses and Dissertations. 19. https://scholar.smu.edu/religious_studies_etds/19 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Religious Studies at SMU Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Religious Studies Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of SMU Scholar. For more information, please visit http://digitalrepository.smu.edu. THE UNMARRIED (M)OTHER: A STUDY OF CHRISTIANITY, CAPITALISM, AND COUNTERNARRATIVES CONCERNING MOTHERHOOD AND MARRIAGE IN THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA Approved by: ____________________________________ Dr. Joerg Rieger Distinguished Professor of Theology, Cal Turner Chancellor’s Chair of Wesleyan Studies, and Founding Director of the Wendland-Cook Program in Religion and Justice at Vanderbilt Divinity School Dr. Crista Deluzio Associate Professor and Altshuler Distinguished Teaching Professor of History and US Women, Children, and Families Dr. Jill DeTemple Associate Professor of Religious Studies Dr. Gerald West Senior Professor of the School of Religion, Philosophy, and Classics at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) THE UNMARRIED (M)OTHER: A STUDY OF CHRISTIANITY, CAPITALISM, AND COUNTERNARRATIVES CONCERNING MOTHERHOOD AND MARRIAGE IN THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Dedman College Southern Methodist University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a Major in Religious Studies by Haley Feuerbacher B.A., University Scholars, Baylor University M.T.S. Brite Divinity School, Texas Christian University December 21, 2019 Copyright (2019) Haley Feuerbacher ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Feuerbacher, Haley B.A., University Scholars, Baylor University, 2005 M.T.S. Brite Divinity School, 2009 The Unmarried (M)Other: A Study of Christianity, Capitalism, and Counternarratives Concerning Motherhood and Marriage in the United States and South Africa Advisor: Dr. Joerg Rieger Doctor of Philosophy conferred December 21, 2019 Dissertation completed May 14, 2019 A reified and patriarchal form of Christianity that emphasizes “family values” – that is, adherence to the formula of a male-headed, heterosexual, capitalist, nuclear family, characterized by distinct, complementary, and hierarchical gender roles as essential to the well-being of individuals, one’s nation, and the ecumenical Church - over “community values” has become a happy bedfellow of the market system and neocolonialism, extending its reach worldwide through globalization. The result is that single mothers constitute the most economically oppressed demographic internationally across all race and ethnic categories. Using Constructivist Grounded Theory and a postcolonial feminist theological lens to collect, retell, and evaluate the stories of single mothers in cross-cultural fieldwork in both the United States and South Africa, this project will analyze the factors, theologies, and practices embodied and created by Christian single mothers that either empower social activism and collective identity or undermine the motivation and means to organize for liberating social action for single mothers. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 2 Theological Discussions on Metanarrative 14 Postcolonial Theory: Theologies from the Margins 16 The Single Mother as Hybrid 20 “Fixing” Single Motherhood: Methods and Approaches 23 Deconstructing the Metanarrative 28 Summary of Chapters 31 CHAPTER 2: THE SHAPE OF THE METANARRATIVE 35 Identifying the Metanarrative 40 Wearing a Scarlet Letter: Sex, Stigma, and the Single Mother in 63 Evangelical Christian Communities CHAPTER 3: THE MAKING OF A METANARRATIVE: HOW THE 86 “NUCLEAR FAMILY” AND NEOLIBERALISM MET AND MARRIED Pre-Capitalist Societies 89 The Spread of Patriarchy 99 Empire and Patriarchy 108 The Industrial Revolution 111 Beyond the Global North 118 The Rise of American Civil Religion 121 Family Planning 123 The Growth of Evangelicalism 128 The Postmodern Era 141 Conclusion 147 v CHAPTER 4: LIVING UNDER THE METANARRATIVE: AMERICAN 151 EVANGELICAL SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE STATISTICAL AND NARRATIVE REALITIES OF THEIR LIVES Method and Approach 158 Living Single Motherhood: The Realities of American Female-Headed Households 164 To Work or Not to Work? 166 The Erosion of Extended Networks of Support 186 Family, Capitalism, and Communities of Color 191 “When We Fall…”: Single Mothers in the Christian Church 199 Harmful Messages from the Christian Community 201 Social Justice for Single Mothers?: What Inhibits the Formation of 218 Social Movements for Female Heads of Household? Constructing a Way Forward: Theological and Practical Resources 224 from Single Mothers and Churches Resources for Counternarratives in Theologies, Practices, and 230 Experiences of American Christian Single Mothers and Evangelical Communities Conclusion 256 CHAPTER 5: BUILDING COUNTERNARRATIVES: SINGLE 262 MOTHERHOOD AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA Why South Africa 266 Religion as Culture and as Ideology in South Africa 277 Resisting Apartheid 285 The Concerned Evangelicals 287 South African Women in Christianity and Activism 292 A Brief History 295 The Rural Women’s Movement 302 vi Transnational Comparative Analysis through the Lens of Postcolonial 339 Feminist Critical Inquiry Evangelicalism and Economics in South Africa Today 343 Exploring South African Evangelical Christianities 352 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 385 Systemic Sin and Power 392 Connecting to Histories of Social Action 398 Communitarianism 401 Non-Dualism of the Spiritual and Material 411 Grassroots Power 415 Embracing Ambivalence and Engaging Contestation 420 Last Thoughts 423 BIBLIOGRAPHY 431 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Number of times members of the Rural Women’s Movement 315 made statements indicating their valuing of a communitarian spirit Figure 2 Number of times members of the Rural Women’s Movement 324 made statements indicating their valuing of a grassroots or bottom-up flow of power Figure 3 Number of times members of the Rural Women’s Movement 331 made statements indicating their valuing of a non-dualistic worldview Figure 4 Number of times members of the Rural Women’s Movement 345 made statements indicating their tolerance of contestation or ambivalence viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation director, Dr. Joerg Rieger, for empowering and encouraging me, advocating for me, guiding me, and teaching me with grace, energy, and compassion – even from afar. I am a better person and scholar because of you. In addition, I would like to acknowledge my esteemed dissertation readers, Dr. Crista Deluzio and Dr. Jill DeTemple, as well as Dr. Gerald West, who welcomes me with hospitality, intentional time, great challenge, and deep insight when I visit South Africa. Also, I’d like to offer my thanks to my friends at Cornerstone Assembly of God in KZN – particularly, Pastor Dennis Solomon and Gita Dickinson – for welcoming me and making me feel at home. My deep gratitude goes to my dear friend and role model Sizani Ngubane. Your dauntless spirit, indomitable courage, and beautiful joy have liberated thousands. Furthermore, I am indebted to the members of the Rural Women’s Movement, who remind me that change is possible and that we, the women and the single mothers, can together bring liberation. Your hands are certainly not in your pockets! Likewise, I want to thank all the single mothers in the United States who bravely shared your stories with me. I hope I do your lives and stories justice. Finally, none of this would be possible without my friends and family – in particular, my Sarah, Jon, Alan, Billie, Christian, and SB. Thank you for all of the sacrifice, wisdom, hard work, laughter, comfort, encouragement, meals, running and surfing breaks, and unconditional love. “I thank my God every time I think of you.” (Philippians 1:3) I hope I make you proud. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION In 2007, Jennifer Maggio committed her time and resources to establishing The Life of the Single Mom Ministries, one of the only Christian ministries of its kind, which seeks to connect unmarried mothers to churches, equip churches to address the needs of these women and their families, and empower single mothers1. A single mother herself, Maggio has founded this organization on the two key beliefs: first, that education is a key to ending single-parent families’ dependence on government assistance, and second, that faith communities have the potential to impact the lives of single mothers. According to the non-profit’s