Sevinç, K, et al. 2018. Non-Belief: An Islamic Perspective. Secularism and Nonreligion, 7: 5, pp. 1–12, DOI: https://doi. org/10.5334/snr.111 RESEARCH ARTICLE Non-Belief: An Islamic Perspective Kenan Sevinç*, Thomas J. Coleman III† and Ralph W. Hood Jr.‡ Psychology of religion research is typically conducted with Protestant populations living in the West. Only recently has non-belief in God become a central topic in the field. And while it remains an open question whether or not the research assumptions and theoretical frameworks designed for Western populations of Protestants can be applied to non-believers, exploring non-belief in the Islamic context may pose additional problems. For example, do Western concepts and terms such as “church attendance” or “atheist” have equivalent meaning in the Muslim world? Are there any structural differences within Islam and Christianity that may contribute to the uneven number of self-reported non-believers within these cultures? In this article, we argue that a cultural psychological approach can provide a useful perspective for researching non-belief in the Muslim cultural context. 1. Introduction requesting divorce based on the purported atheism of By the year 2042, the growth of the non-religious—those one’s spouse), it was suggested that there may be many with no religious affiliation—is projected to reach up to more atheists in the Muslim world than often assumed. 47% of the population in the United States of America This is plausible—after all, beliefs cannot be ‘seen’ in the (Stinespring & Cragun, 2015). In other Western countries, way behaviour can be—but there are no reliable numbers the number of non-believers in gods (i.e., atheists)—a sub- and the respective people do not admit their lack of belief. set of the non-religious—is also rapidly increasing (Brown, The psychology of religion is primarily concerned with 2013; Keysar, 2017; Keysar & Navarro-Rivera, 2013). This how the individual navigates worldviews and beliefs, some increase in the non-religious and non-believers coincides of which may be deemed religious and others that may with growing research on atheism from several discipli- not be (Coleman & Arrowood, 2015; Coleman, Silver, & nary perspectives (Bullivant & Lee, 2012; Bullivant & Hood, 2016; for opposing views on this topic, see Vergote, Ruse, 2013), particularly in the psychology of religion 1986 and van der Lans, 1986). The majority of this research (Baker & Robbins, 2012; Bradley, Exline, & Uzdavines, has focused on Western populations, primarily within a 2015; Coleman, Hood, & Shook, 2015; Sevinç, 2013; Silver, Christian context, studying Christian individuals, and often Coleman, Hood, & Holcombe, 2014). Between 2001 and undertaken by researchers who are themselves Christian 2012, 100 studies on atheism were conducted. 38% of (Wulff, 2001; Beit-Hallahmi, 2015). Consequently, investi- these studies were conducted in the United States. When gations into non-belief (and even belief) have implicitly looking at the religious background of the sample, the or explicitly adopted the literature, methodologies, and majority (61%) are Protestant and the Muslim sample is frameworks developed within this context. While this has only around 9% (Brewster, Robinson, Sandil, Esposito, & its benefits for researching Christian populations, it is also Geiger, 2014). Research on non-belief in Islamic contexts a bane when applied to non-Christian worldviews. remains somewhat undeveloped (for exceptions, see A cultural-psychological perspective has the potential Aydin, 1995; Martin, 2010; Schielke, 2012) and there are to address these issues and help elucidate phenomena only a limited number of articles on related issues, such from within a given cultural context. This approach seeks as apostasy, conversion, and religious doubt (e.g., Bahadır, idiographic, historically situated, and socially exchanged 1994; Çayır, 2008; Peker, 1979; Zavalsız, 2010; Aydın, knowledge, as opposed to law-like explanations of psy- 1995). One possible reason for this lacuna may be that siz- chological functioning abstracted from culture (Belzen, able numbers of non-believers within these cultures do 2010). Cultural psychology has a long and visible history not officially exist and cannot therefore be easily studied. within the West; however it is only recently that Western Nevertheless, in an article by The Washington Post (2017), scholars have been introduced to a similar history within citing a variety of indirect sources (e.g., legal records the Islamic context (c.f., Sevinç & Ağilkaya-Şahin, 2015). As the psychology of Islamic belief becomes more salient to the West it has started to produce knowledge that chal- * Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Department of Psychology of Religion, TR lenges Western paradigms (e.g., Ağilkaya-Şahin, Streib, † Coventry University, Centre for Advances in Behavioural Science; Ayten, & Hood, 2015). For a psychology of non-belief, Brain, Belief, and Behaviour Research Lab, GB however, this engagement has yet to take place. ‡ University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of This article focuses on non-belief within the Islamic con- Psychology, US text. We raise several questions about the importation of Corresponding author: Kenan Sevinç ([email protected]) Western concepts for describing belief and non-belief into Non-Belief: An Islamic PerspectiveNon-Belief: An Islamic Perspective 6 6 Non-Belief: An Islamic Perspective 6 considered ―non-believers‖considered Nonin that-Belief: they ―non doAn -notbelievers‖ Islamic have Perspectivethe in Islamic that they faith, do notbut havethat doesthe Islamic not mean faith, but that does not mean 6 considered ―non-believers‖ in that they do not have the Islamic faith, but that does not mean that they are ―non-believers‖that in they a wider are ―non sense-believers‖ as many, inperhaps a wider most, sense non as- Muslimsmany, perhaps believe most, in non-Muslims believe in considered ―non-believers‖ in that they do not have the Islamic faith, but that does not mean that they are ―non-believers‖ in a wider sense as many, perhaps most, non-Muslims believe in some gods or God. However,some no gods existing or God. term However, corresponds no existingdirectly termto Western corresponds notions directly of to Western notions of that they are ―non-believers‖ in a wider sense as many, perhaps most, non-Muslims believe in some gods or God. However, no existing term corresponds directly to Western notions of atheism and non-belief in atheismIslamic literature.and non-belief Atheism in Islamic and non literature.-belief, at Atheism least in theand modern non-belief, at least in the modern some gods or God. However, no existing term corresponds directly to Western notions of atheism and non-belief in Islamic literature. Atheism and non-belief, at least in the modern sense, originates in the West.sense, Consequently, originates in the the term West. atheism Consequently, is generally the usedterm asatheism a ―loan is generally used as a ―loan atheism and non-belief in Islamic literature. Atheism and non-belief, at least in the modern sense, originates in the West. Consequently, the term atheism is generally used as a ―loan word‖ in Islamic terminologyword‖ (Schielke, in Islamic 2013, terminology p. 638). In (Schielke, the Islamic 2013, tradition, p. 638). the In term the Islamickafir tradition, the term kafir sense, originates in the West. Consequently, the term atheism is generally used as a ―loan word‖ in Islamic terminology (Schielke, 2013, p. 638). In the Islamic tradition, the term kafir is commonly used as an umbrella concept referring to non-Muslims. It is used in place of is word‖commonly in Islamic used asterminology an umbrella (Schielke, concept referring2013, p. 638).to non In-Muslims. the Islamic It istradition, used in placethe term of kafir is commonly used as an umbrella concept referring to non-Muslims. It is used in place of more nuanced terms, such moreas munafiq nuanced, mushrik terms,, suchahl al as-kitab munafiq, zindiq, mushrik, dahri, ,ahl ahl al bid’ah-kitab,, zindiq, dahri, ahl bid’ah, is commonly used as an umbrella concept referring to non-Muslims. It is used in place of more nuanced terms, such as munafiq, mushrik, ahl al-kitab, zindiq, dahri, ahl bid’ah, murtadd, and mulhid. Despitemurtadd the diversity, and mulhid of available. Despite terms, the diversity none of of them available correspond terms, tonone of them correspond to more nuanced terms, such as munafiq, mushrik, ahl al-kitab, zindiq, dahri, ahl bid’ah, murtadd, and mulhid. Despite the diversity of available terms, none of them correspond to Art. 5, page 2 of 12 Western notions of ‗atheism‘.Western The followingnotions of section‗atheism‘. provides The following a summarySevinç section of et these al: provides Non-Belief terms, a and summary of these terms, and murtadd, and mulhid. Despite the diversity of available terms, none of them correspond to Western notions of ‗atheism‘. The following section provides a summary of these terms, and explores their limited equivalenceexplores to their ‗atheism‘. limited equivalence to ‗atheism‘. Islamic culture and search for answers. These questionsWestern of notionsthem correspond of ‗atheism‘. to Western The following notions sectionof ‘atheism’. provides The a summary of these terms, and are as follows: Are the concepts of non-belief, atheism, following section exploresprovides atheir summary limited of equivalencethese terms, andto ‗atheism‘. In Islamic literature, the term kafir includes :(كافر