DISSERTATIONEN DER LMU 43 RENATE BARTL American Tri-Racials African-Native Contact, Multi-Ethnic Native American Nations, and the Ethnogenesis of Tri-Racial Groups in North America We People: Multi-Ethnic Indigenous Nations and Multi- Ethnic Groups Claiming Indian Ancestry in the Eastern United States Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig‐Maximilians‐Universität München vorgelegt von Renate Bartl aus Mainburg 2017 Erstgutachter: Prof. Berndt Ostendorf Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Eveline Dürr Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 26.02.2018 Renate Bartl American Tri-Racials African-Native Contact, Multi-Ethnic Native American Nations, and the Ethnogenesis of Tri-Racial Groups in North America Dissertationen der LMU München Band 43 American Tri-Racials African-Native Contact, Multi-Ethnic Native American Nations, and the Ethnogenesis of Tri-Racial Groups in North America by Renate Bartl Herausgegeben von der Universitätsbibliothek der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1 80539 München Mit Open Publishing LMU unterstützt die Universitätsbibliothek der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München alle Wissenschaft ler innen und Wissenschaftler der LMU dabei, ihre Forschungsergebnisse parallel gedruckt und digital zu veröfentlichen. Text © Renate Bartl 2020 Erstveröfentlichung 2021 Zugleich Dissertation der LMU München 2017 Bibliografsche Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografe; detaillierte bibliografsche Daten sind im Internet abrufbar über http://dnb.dnb.de Herstellung über: readbox unipress in der readbox publishing GmbH Rheinische Str. 171 44147 Dortmund http://unipress.readbox.net Open-Access-Version dieser Publikation verfügbar unter: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-268747 978-3-95925-170-9 (Druckausgabe) 978-3-95925-171-6 (elektronische Version) Contents List of Maps ......................................................................................................... X List of Figures .................................................................................................... XI Abbreviations ................................................................................................... XII Foreword ........................................................................................................... XIII 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 2 Theoretical Frame ...................................................................................... 21 2.1 Theory of Ethnicity and Race ................................................................ 22 2.2 Racial and Ethnic Categories ................................................................ 27 2.3 State and Federal Recognition/Acknowledgement of Native American Tribes ..................................................................... 43 2.3.1 Federal Recognition and Acknowledgement .......................... 45 2.3.2 State Recognition ........................................................................ 50 2.4 Maroon Societies ................................................................................... 52 2.5 Theoretical and Ideological Scientifc Preconditions ......................... 53 3 Basic Theories on Tri-Racial Groups ..................................................... 63 3.1 Racial Categorizations ........................................................................... 64 4 Oral Tradition as Source of Information ............................................. 67 4.1 Oral Tradition in Literature .................................................................... 67 4.2 Oral Tradition as Ethnohistorical Source ............................................. 69 5 Tri-Racial Groups – A General Introduction ...................................... 75 5.1 Traditions of Origin ................................................................................ 78 5.2 Historical Traditions ............................................................................... 79 5.3 Genealogies ............................................................................................ 80 5.4 Ideological Use of Traditions ................................................................ 81 5.5 Feedback ................................................................................................. 83 VI Contents 6 Settlement Areas, Early Borderland, Frontier and Migration Routes ....................................................................................... 85 6.1 Migration Routes ................................................................................... 86 7 African-Native Contact in North America .......................................... 89 7.1 History of Research ................................................................................ 89 7.2 History of Contact .................................................................................. 92 8 African-Native Contact in Canada ........................................................ 95 8.1 Eastern Canada ...................................................................................... 97 8.1.1 Nova Scotia .................................................................................. 98 8.1.2 Ontario.......................................................................................... 98 8.2 Western Canada ................................................................................... 100 8.2.1 Saskatchewan ............................................................................ 100 8.2.2 Alberta ........................................................................................ 100 8.2.3 British Columbia ........................................................................ 101 9 African-Native Contact in the USA ..................................................... 103 9.1 New England ........................................................................................ 105 9.1.1 Maine .......................................................................................... 107 9.1.2 New Hampshire ......................................................................... 108 9.1.3 Vermont ...................................................................................... 109 9.1.4 Massachusetts ........................................................................... 109 9.1.5 Rhode Island .............................................................................. 115 9.1.6 Connecticut................................................................................ 116 9.2 Mid-Atlantic/Northeastern States ...................................................... 118 9.2.1 New York State ........................................................................... 119 9.2.2 New Jersey ................................................................................. 121 9.2.3 Pennsylvania .............................................................................. 123 9.2.4 Delaware .................................................................................... 125 9.2.5 Maryland .................................................................................... 126 9.2.6 District of Columbia .................................................................. 128 9.3 Midwest ................................................................................................ 129 9.3.1 Ohio ............................................................................................ 130 9.3.2 Indiana ........................................................................................ 132 9.3.3 Illinois.......................................................................................... 133 Contents VII 9.3.4 Michigan..................................................................................... 135 9.3.5 Wisconsin ................................................................................... 136 9.3.6 Minnesota .................................................................................. 137 9.4 Southeast .............................................................................................. 139 9.4.1 Virginia ........................................................................................ 148 9.4.2 West Virginia .............................................................................. 157 9.4.3 Kentucky ..................................................................................... 157 9.4.4 Tennessee ................................................................................... 159 9.4.5 Province of Carolina .................................................................. 161 9.4.5.1 North Carolina .............................................................. 162 9.4.5.2 South Carolina .............................................................. 167 9.4.6 Georgia ....................................................................................... 172 9.4.7 Florida ......................................................................................... 174 9.4.8 Alabama ..................................................................................... 182 9.4.9 Mississippi .................................................................................. 185 9.5 Western States ...................................................................................... 188 9.5.1 Arkansas ....................................................................................