Mediatisering, mangfold og megling Fremstillinger av islam i etablerte og alternative medier En studie av VG og Resett RELV350, Vår 2020 Sebastian Tjelle Jarmer Mastergrad i religionsvitenskap Institutt for arkeologi, historie, kultur- og religionsvitenskap Veiledet av professor Marie von der Lippe i ii Abstract In the last few decades, a lot of attention has been given to the ways that Islam is represented in the established media. More recently, scholars have also paid attention to the growing presence and influence of so-called alternative media. In Europe in general, and Norway in particular, different media outlets with an anti-elitist, anti-immigration and anti-Islamic discourse has gained prominence. This thesis aims to explore the representations of Islam in both established and alternative media simultaneously. The study explores the ways in which Islam is represented in Norway’s biggest online newspaper, vg.no, as well as the media outlet resett.no. Through the combination of quantitative and qualitative content analysis, the study aims to show how stereotypes and critique of Islam can be (re)produced in media discourse, but also how such discourses are contested, spoken against and negotiated. The study analyses a total of 153 articles published in the time span between September 2017–April 2019, and thus gives a general overview of contemporary media representations of Islam. The thesis draws on mediatization theory to explore how media logics to a growing extent haves an influence on the ways that religion is represented in the media. The analysis show that most of the representations of Islam in both VG and Resett revolve around critical sentiments, conflict and violence. However, the thesis also displays that the media landscape is changing; a sizeable number of both Muslims and non-Muslims contest stereotypical representations, and are vocal about Muslims’ challenges in the Norwegian society. iii Forord Denne masteroppgaven hadde ikke vært mulig uten hjelp fra en rekke svært behjelpelige og støttende personer. En stor takk rettes til: Min veileder, Marie von der Lippe, for ypperlig veiledning, korrekturlesing og hyggelige samtaler. Alle studentene og professorene ved religionsvitenskap på UiB for gode innspill både på og utenom symposium. En spesiell takk rettes til Ingvild Gilhus for gode råd om religionsbegrepet. Sindre Bangstad, Vemund Aarbakke og Jan-Kåre Breivik, for litteratur og litteraturtips. Kristoffer Holt, for tillatelse til å bruke «anti-systemhetmatrisen». Johanne og Anne Lise, for korrekturlesing. Tomas, Victoria, Barbro og Theresa – for de mange fine timene på lesesalen. Og sist men ikke minst, takk til min nærmeste familie og samboer, Jenny. Sebastian Tjelle Jarmer Bergen, mai 2020. iv Innholdsfortegnelse Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iii Forord ........................................................................................................................................ iv Figuroversikt ........................................................................................................................... viii Tabelloversikt ............................................................................................................................ ix Kapittel 1: Et mangfold av stemmer........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problemstilling og tema ................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Språk og subjektivitet ....................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 «Islam» ...................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Muslimfiendtlighet og islamkritikk ........................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Forskerens rolle ......................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Nasjonale og globale tendenser ........................................................................................ 7 1.3.1 Relevante diskurser ................................................................................................... 7 1.3.2 Islam i Norge, og islam og Norge ............................................................................. 8 1.3.3 Et populistisk «vi» i møte med et muslimsk «dem» ................................................. 9 1.4 Skepsis til islam og sekularisering ................................................................................. 11 1.5 Masterprosjektets struktur .............................................................................................. 14 Kapittel 2: Tidligere forskning og perspektiver ....................................................................... 15 2.1 Media og pressen: utvikling og struktur ......................................................................... 15 2.2 Islam i media .................................................................................................................. 16 2.2.1 Konflikt, kritikk og identitet .................................................................................... 16 2.2.2 Polarisering .............................................................................................................. 17 2.2.3 Et knippe muslimske stemmer ................................................................................ 17 2.2.4 Ekstraordinær islam ................................................................................................. 18 2.3 Konsekvens og påvirkning ............................................................................................. 18 2.4 Muslimske stemmer og megling .................................................................................... 19 2.5 Sammenfatning ............................................................................................................... 21 v Kapittel 3: Etablerte eller alternative medier? .......................................................................... 22 3.1 VG ................................................................................................................................... 22 3.2 Resett .............................................................................................................................. 23 3.3 Etablerte og alternative medier ...................................................................................... 24 3.3.1 Polariserende alternative medier ............................................................................. 25 3.4 Alternative medier i utvikling ........................................................................................ 26 3.5 Sammenfatning ............................................................................................................... 27 Kapittel 4: Metodologi og mediatisering ................................................................................. 28 4.1 Utvalg og metoder .......................................................................................................... 28 4.2 Mediatisering på kryss og tvers ...................................................................................... 28 4.2.1 Kjennetegn og mediedynamikker ............................................................................ 29 4.2.2 Mediatisering av religion ........................................................................................ 30 4.2.3 Mellomteori og substantiv teori .............................................................................. 31 4.3 Type, teori og kode ......................................................................................................... 31 4.3.1 Radikal islamist-typen ............................................................................................. 32 4.3.2 Humanistisk interesse-typen ................................................................................... 34 4.3.3 Islamkritikk-typen og Problematisering-typen ........................................................ 34 4.4 Kvantitativ innholdsanalyse ........................................................................................... 35 4.4.1 Potensielle fallgruver ............................................................................................... 38 4.5 Kvalitativ innholdsanalyse ............................................................................................. 38 4.5.1 To eksempler ........................................................................................................... 40 4.5.2 Potensielle fallgruver ............................................................................................... 42 4.6 Etiske vurderinger .......................................................................................................... 42 Kapittel 5: Kvantitative tendenser og dynamikker ................................................................... 44 5.1 Islam i redaksjonene ....................................................................................................... 44 5.2 Radikal islamist-typen: Fra IS-kvinner til kulturkrig ..................................................... 45 5.2.1 RIT i VG: Islamsk Stat og massedrap ..................................................................... 45 vi 5.2.2 RIT i Resett: Hellige skrifter og kultur ...................................................................