The Political Culture of Democracy in Nicaragua and in the Americas, 2012: Towards Equality of Opportunity By: John A. Booth, Ph.D. University of North Texas Mitchell A. Seligson, Ph.D. Scientific Coordinator and Editor of the Series Vanderbilt University This study was performed with support from the Program in Democracy and Governance of the United States Agency for International Development. The opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the point of view of the United States Agency for International Development. April 2013 Table of Contents, Tables and Figures Table of Contents Tables .................................................................................................................................................. vii Figures .................................................................................................................................................. vii Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xiii Prologue: Background to the Study .................................................................................................... xv Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. xxv Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................... xxix Understanding Figures in this Study ............................................................................................. xxxvi Part I: Equality of Opportunity and Democracy in the Americas ................................................... 1 Chapter One: Equality of Economic and Social Opportunities in the Americas ............................. 3 I. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 3 II. Background: Equality of Economic and Social Opportunities in the Americas ............. 5 III. Equalities in Economic and Social Opportunities in Nicaragua: A View from the AmericasBarometer ..................................................................................................... 13 Who Reports Discrimination? ............................................................................... 28 Public Opinion on Racial and Gender Inequality ................................................. 30 IV. Public Opinion towards Common Policy Proposals ................................................... 36 Conditional Cash Transfer and Public Assistance Programs ................................ 37 Affirmative Action ................................................................................................. 42 V. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 43 Special Report Box 1: Educational Achievement and Skin Color .................................... 45 Special Report Box 2: Economic Crisis, Skin Color, and Household Wealth .................. 46 Special Report Box 3: Support for Interethnic Marriage ................................................... 47 Chapter Two: Equality of Political Participation in the Americas .................................................. 49 I. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 49 II. Participation in the Americas in 2012 ........................................................................... 52 Turnout .................................................................................................................. 52 Beyond Turnout ..................................................................................................... 55 III. Public Opinion on Opportunities and Discriminatory Attitudes ................................. 64 Public Opinion towards Women’s Leadership ...................................................... 64 Public Opinion towards the Leadership of Marginalized Racial/Ethnic Groups . 66 Public Opinion towards the Participation of Homosexuals .................................. 67 Public Opinion towards the Participation of the Disabled ................................... 69 iii Political Culture of Democracy in Nicaragua, 2012 IV. Public Opinion towards Common Policy Proposals ................................................... 70 Gender Quotas ....................................................................................................... 71 Compulsory Voting ................................................................................................ 72 Reduction in Economic and Social Inequality ....................................................... 73 V. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 73 Special Report Box 4: Political Participation and Gender ................................................. 75 Special Report Box 5: Gender Quotas and Women’s Political Participation .................... 76 Special Report Box 6: Compulsory Voting and Inequalities in Political Participation ....................................................................................................................... 77 Chapter Three: The Effect of Unequal Opportunities and Discrimination on Political Legitimacy and Engagement .................................................................................................. 79 I. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 79 II. Inequality, Efficacy, and Perceptions of Representation .............................................. 82 III. System Support and Engagement with Democracy ..................................................... 89 IV. Protest Participation ..................................................................................................... 93 V. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 96 Special Report Box 7: Political Knowledge and the Urban-Rural Divide ........................ 98 Special Report Box 8: Discrimination and System Support .............................................. 99 Special Report Box 9: Support for Democracy and Electoral Information ..................... 100 Part II: Governance, Political Engagement, and Civil Society in the Americas ......................... 101 Chapter Four: Corruption, Crime, and Democracy ....................................................................... 103 I. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 103 II. Corruption ................................................................................................................... 105 Perception of Corruption ..................................................................................... 107 Corruption Victimization ..................................................................................... 109 Who is Likely to be a Victim of Corruption? ....................................................... 112 III. Perceptions of Insecurity and Crime Victimization ................................................... 114 IV. Crime Victimization .................................................................................................. 117 Who is Likely to be a Victim of Crime? ............................................................... 122 V. The Impact of Crime, Insecurity and Corruption on Support for the Political System .............................................................................................................................. 123 VI. Support for the Rule of Law and the Impact of Crime and Insecurity ...................... 125 VII. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 129 Chapter Five: Political Legitimacy and Tolerance .......................................................................... 131 I. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 131 iv Table of Contents, Tables and Figures II. Support for the Political System ................................................................................. 134 III. Political Tolerance ..................................................................................................... 137 IV. Democratic Stability .................................................................................................. 142 V. Legitimacy of Other Democratic Institutions ............................................................. 146 VI. Support for Democracy ............................................................................................. 151 VII. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 154 Chapter Six: Local Government ....................................................................................................... 157 I. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 157 II. Local Level Participation ...........................................................................................