REPORT 194 REPORT RESEARCH REPORT A Dynamic Three-Dimensional Air Pollution HEA L TH Kong for Hong Model Exposure Air Pollution Three-Dimensional HEA L TH EFFE CTS EFFE CTS Exposure Model for Hong Kong INSTITUTE INSTITUTE Benjamin Barratt, Martha Lee, Paulina Wong, Robert Tang, 75 Federal Street, Suite 1400 Tsz Him Tsui, Wei Cheng, Yang Yang, Poh-Chin Lai, Linwei Tian, Boston, MA 02110, USA Number 194 Thuan-Quoc Thach, Ryan Allen, and Michael Brauer +1-617-488-2300 February 2018 www.healtheffects.org RESEARCH REPORT Number 194 February 2018 June 2017 June A Dynamic Three-Dimensional Air Pollution Exposure Model for Hong Kong Benjamin Barratt, Martha Lee, Paulina Wong, Robert Tang, Tsz Him Tsui, Wei Cheng, Yang Yang, Poh-Chin Lai, Linwei Tian, Thuan-Quoc Thach, Ryan Allen, and Michael Brauer with a Critique by the HEI Review Committee Research Report 194 Health Effects Institute Boston, Massachusetts Trusted Science · Cleaner Air · Better Health Publishing history: This document was posted at www.healtheffects.org February 2018. Citation for document: Barratt B, Lee M, Wong P, Tang R, Tsui TH, Cheng W, et al. 2018. A Dynamic Three- Dimensional Air Pollution Exposure Model for Hong Kong. Research Report 194. Boston, MA: Health Effects Institute. © 2018 Health Effects Institute, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. Cameographics, Union, Me., Compositor. Printed by Recycled Paper Printing, Boston, Mass. Library of Congress Catalog Number for the HEI Report Series: WA 754 R432. Cover paper: made with at least 55% recycled content, of which at least 30% is post-consumer waste; free of acid and elemental chlorine. Text paper: made with 100% post-consumer waste recycled content; acid free; no chlorine used in processing. The book is of permanent archival quality. CONTENTS About HEI vii About This Report ix Preface xi HEI STATEMENT 1 INVESTIGATORS’ REPORT by Barratt et al. 5 ABSTRACT 5 Introduction 5 Methods 5 Results 6 Conclusions 6 INTRODUCTION 6 SPECIFIC AIMS 8 METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN 8 Protection of Human Subjects 8 Study Design 8 WP1: 2D LUR Model Development 8 WP2: 3D LUR Model Development 8 WP3: D3D LUR Model Development 8 WP4: Model Evaluation and Translation 9 WP1: Development of a 2D Land-Use Regression Model for Hong Kong 9 Field Sampling 9 Pollutant Concentrations 9 Predictors 10 Model Building 10 Evaluation 11 WP2: Vertical Monitoring Field Campaign and Development of a 3D LUR Model 11 Selection of Sampling Sites 11 Recruitment Process 11 Vertical Sampling Campaign 12 Data Quality Control 13 Calculation of Decay Rates 13 Calculation of Infiltration Efficiencies 13 WP3: Integration of Population Movements to Create a Dynamic 3D LUR Model 14 Population Mobility Data 14 Deriving Population Movement Patterns 14 Subjects with Missing Trip Information 15 Time-Weighted Air Pollution Exposure 15 Exposure in Different Microenvironments 15 Air Pollution Data 15 Data Analysis 17 Health Effects Institute Report 194 © 2018 Report 194 WP4: Model Evaluation and Translation for Application in Other Megacities 17 Cohort Data 17 Health Outcomes 18 Exposure Data 18 Visualization of 3D Dispersion Patterns for Public Engagement 19 STATISTICAL METHODS AND DATA ANALYSIS 20 Cox Proportional Hazard Models (WP4) 20 Covariates 20 Comparison Between Pollutants 20 Comparison with Satellite-Derived Exposure Estimates 20 Sensitivity Analyses 20 RESULTS 20 WP1: Development of a 2D Land-Use Regression Model for Hong Kong 20 Measurements 20 Model Results and Evaluation 21 WP2: Vertical Monitoring Field Campaign and Development of a 3D LUR Model 21 Sampling Site Characteristics 21 Equipment Performance 21 Vertical Decay Rates 26 Alternative Decay Exposure Profile 31 Infiltration Efficiencies 32 WP3: Integration of Population Movements to Create a Dynamic 3D LUR Model 32 Exposure and Time Spent in Different Microenvironments 32 Time-Weighted Exposure by Model Stage 33 Stratified Analysis for Different Population Subgroups 34 WP4: Model Evaluation and Translation for Application in Other Megacities 36 Cohort Data 36 Exposure Data 36 Associations Between Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Mortality 36 Sensitivity Analyses 39 Application of Alternative Decay Profile 39 Visualization of 3D Dispersion Patterns 40 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 40 Implications for Future Use of Low-Cost Air Quality Sensors 40 Development of a 2D Land-Use Regression Model for Hong Kong 41 Vertical Decay of TRAP and Derivation of a Canyon Typology 41 Building Infiltration Efficiencies 42 Dynamic Exposure Modeling 42 Report 194 Staged Epidemiological Analysis of Mortality Rates in an Elderly Cohort 43 Impact of Model Assumptions 44 Application of TRAP Exposure Methodology in Other High-Rise Asian Cities 44 IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS 45 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 46 REFERENCES 46 MATERIALS AVAILABLE ON THE HEI WEBSITE 50 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 50 OTHER PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM THIS RESEARCH 52 CRITIQUE by the Review Committee 53 INTRODUCTION 53 APPROACH 54 Aims 54 Methods 54 Two-Dimensional LUR models (Work Package 1) 54 Three-Dimensional LUR Models (Work Package 2) 54 Dynamic Three-Dimensional LUR models (Work Package 3) 55 Application to the Cohort (Work Package 4) 56 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 56 Exposure Models with Increasing Complexity 56 Application of the Exposure Models to the Cohort 56 REVIEW COMMITTEE EVALUATION 57 Strengths of the Study 57 Data Challenges 57 Adding a Vertical Component to the Exposure Model 60 Adding a Dynamic Component to the Exposure Model 61 Development of the Two-Dimensional Exposure Models 61 Overarching Final Considerations 61 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 62 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 62 REFERENCES 63 Abbreviations and Other Terms 65 Related HEI Publications 67 HEI Board, Committees, and Staff 69 ABOUT HEI The Health Effects Institute is a nonprofit corporation chartered in 1980 as an independent research organization to provide high-quality, impartial, and relevant science on the effects of air pollution on health. To accomplish its mission, the institute • Identifies the highest-priority areas for health effects research; • Competitively funds and oversees research projects; • Provides intensive independent review of HEI-supported studies and related research; • Integrates HEI’s research results with those of other institutions into broader evaluations; and • Communicates the results of HEI’s research and analyses to public and private decision makers. HEI typically receives balanced funding from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the worldwide motor vehicle industry. Frequently, other public and private organizations in the United States and around the world also support major projects or research programs. HEI has funded more than 330 research projects in North America, Europe, Asia, and Latin America, the results of which have informed decisions regarding carbon monoxide, air toxics, nitrogen oxides, diesel exhaust, ozone, particulate matter, and other pollutants. These results have appeared in more than 260 comprehensive reports published by HEI, as well as in more than 1,000 articles in the peer-reviewed literature. HEI’s independent Board of Directors consists of leaders in science and policy who are committed to fostering the public–private partnership that is central to the organization. The Research Committee solicits input from HEI sponsors and other stakeholders and works with scientific staff to develop a Five-Year Strategic Plan, select research projects for funding, and oversee their conduct. The Review Committee, which has no role in selecting or overseeing studies, works with staff to evaluate and interpret the results of funded studies and related research. All project results and accompanying comments by the Review Committee are widely disseminated through HEI’s website (www.healtheffects.org), printed reports, newsletters and other publications, annual conferences, and presentations to legislative bodies and public agencies. vii ABOUT THIS REPORT Research Report 194, A Dynamic Three-Dimensional Air Pollution Exposure Model for Hong Kong, presents a research project funded by the Health Effects Institute and conducted by Dr. Benjamin Barratt of King’s College London, United Kingdom, and his colleagues. The report contains three main sections. The HEI Statement, prepared by staff at HEI, is a brief, nontechnical summary of the study and its findings; it also briefly describes the Review Committee’s comments on the study. The Investigators’ Report, prepared by Barratt and colleagues, describes the scientific background, aims, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. The Critique, prepared by members of the Review Committee with the assistance of HEI staff, places the study in a broader scientific context, points out its strengths and limitations, and discusses remaining uncertainties and implications of the study’s findings for public health and future research. This report has gone through HEI’s rigorous review process. When an HEI-funded study is completed, the investigators submit a draft final report presenting the background and results of the study. This draft report is first examined by outside technical reviewers and a biostatistician. The report and the reviewers’ comments are then evaluated by members of the Review Committee, an independent panel of distinguished scientists who have no involvement in selecting or overseeing HEI studies. During the review process, the investigators have an opportunity to exchange comments with the Review Committee and, as necessary, to revise their report. The Critique reflects the information provided in the final version