PALGRAVE SERIES IN INDIAN OCEAN WORLD STUDIES LABOR ON THE FRINGES OF EMPIRE Voice, Exit and the Law Alessandro Stanziani Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies Series editor Gwyn Campbell McGill University Montreal, Canada This is the first scholarly series devoted to the study of the Indian Ocean world from early times to the present day. Encouraging interdisciplinarity, it incorporates and contributes to key debates in a number of areas includ- ing history, environmental studies, anthropology, sociology, political sci- ence, geography, economics, law, and labor and gender studies. Because it breaks from the restrictions imposed by country/regional studies and Eurocentric periodization, the series provides new frameworks through which to interpret past events, and new insights for present-day policymak- ers in key areas from labor relations and migration to diplomacy and trade. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14661 Alessandro Stanziani Labor on the Fringes of Empire Voice, Exit and the Law Alessandro Stanziani EHESS-PSL and CNRS Paris, France Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ISBN 978-3-319-70391-6 ISBN 978-3-319-70392-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70392-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017961111 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub- lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu- tional affiliations. Cover illustration: © TAO Images Limited / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland This book is devoted to all those who did not give up their fights for freedom. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book benefited from the many discussions and assistance from col- leagues, friends and students. In India, I found the help and benevolent criticism of organizers of the biannual meeting at the Association of Indian labor History—Rana Behal, Chitra Joshi, and Prabhu Mohapatra, as well as from the participants to these workshops that I had the great pleasure to see growing over time from a small event to a huge world conference. A special thanks also to my colleagues and friends interested in global labor history—Andreas Eckert (Re-work, Berlin), Marcel Van Der Linden (IISG Amsterdam), and Ulbe Bosma (IISG, Amsterdam). I also benefited from the comments of specialists in African history—Frederick Cooper (NYU), Gareth Austin (Cambridge University), Babacar Fall (University Cheik Anta Diop, Dakar), Richard Roberts (Stanford). Gwyn Campbell (McGill) and Claude Markovits (CNRS, Paris) provided valuable insights in discussions of the Indian Ocean World. Global History specialists helped me in connecting the different chapters. First of all, friends with whom I have shared joint projects for several years: Jeremy Adelman (Princeton), Sven Beckert (Harvard), Sebastian Conrad (Freie University, Berlin), Sheldon Garon (Princeton), and Masashi Haneda (Tokyo University). Also: William Gervase Clarence Smith (SOAS, London), Patrick O’Brien (LSE), Giorgio Riello (Warwick), and Thirtankar Roy (LSE). In Paris, Paul-André Rosental (Sciences-Po), and Gilles Postel-­ Vinay were constant readers of my efforts. I also benefited from discus- sions with colleagues at the EHESS: Corinne Lefèvre, Natalia Muchnik, Xavier Paulès, Antonella Romano, Silvia Sebastiani, Larissa Zakharova, and Ines Zupanov. vii viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In addition, I greatly benefited from the valuable suggestions of two anonymous referees. However, the best insights and suggestions came from my students at the EHESS: discussions during and outside my seminars strongly contrib- uted towards improving my efforts. CONTENTS 1 Introduction: Progress and (Un)Freedom 1 Labor and Freedom: Perspectives from the “Old World” 3 Abolitionism in India 5 Mauritius Island: Immigrants and the Limits of Contractualism 7 French Abolitionism 9 Sources and Power 11 References 22 2 Coercion, Resistance and Voice 31 Economic Theories of Coercion 31 Power, Labor and the Colonial State 34 Rights and Legal Status 36 Resistance: Exit and Runaways 40 Resistance: Voice and the Use of the Law 43 Rights, Labor and Inequalities 48 References 59 3 Utilitarianism and the Abolition of Slavery in India 67 Introduction 67 From Pre-colonial to Colonial Slaveries 69 Utilitarianism, Abolitionism and Indian Slavery 77 ix x Contents India, Britain and the Empire: Slavery and Sovereignty 1830s–1840s 85 Abolition in Practice 94 General Rules of Labor 99 Conclusion 113 References 128 4 Slavery, Abolition and the Contractarian Approach in the Indian Ocean: The Case of Mauritius 137 From Slavery to Indentured Immigration in the Indian Ocean: An Overview 137 Indentured Immigrants in the Indian Ocean 141 Indentured Immigrants in Mauritius: The Overall Picture 145 Living Conditions and Abuse by Planters 147 What Were the Laborers’ Complaints? 153 Resistances 155 Penalties and Inducement 157 Savings, Repatriation and Contract Renewal 161 Conclusion 164 References 172 5 How Do You Say “Free” in French? 177 Abolitionism in France and the French Empire 178 Rules of Labor and Rights: Slaves vs. Domestic Servants 182 The Multiple Abolitions of Slavery 186 Empire on a Rock: Immigrants and Coercion on Reunion Island—From Slavery to Indentured Immigrants 197 Engagisme After Slavery 200 Labor, Violence, and the Use of the Law 203 Feeding the Immigrants: Abuses, Benevolence, and Colonial Welfare 208 Conclusion 218 References 236 Contents xi 6 The Welfare State and the Colonial World, 1880–1914: The Case of French Equatorial Africa 251 Slavery and Abolition in British Africa: An Overview 252 French Penetration in Africa and FEA, 1870–1890 257 Scandals and Violence: The Brazza Mission 260 Labor in French Equatorial Africa: From Local Slavery to Colonial Bondage 265 The New Labor Contract in France 272 Law and Justice 277 Labor and the Rule of Law 281 Conclusion: The Social State and the Heart of Darkness 290 References 305 7 Conclusion: Voice, Exit and the Law in Historical Perspective 317 References 323 Index 325 LIST OF TaBLES Table 4.1 Male workers on estates directly managed by their owners, 1874 149 Table 4.2 Working people on absentee owners’ estates, 1874 151 Table 4.3 Complaints lodged by workers, Courts of First Instance, 1875 153 Table 4.4 Complaints lodged by landowners against workers, 1875 157 Table 4.5 Labourdonnais estate accounts, 1871 159 Table 5.1 Reunion island sugar exports 214 Table 5.2 Reunion Island rice imports, special trade, in francs 215 xiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Progress and (Un)Freedom In 1873, on Reunion Island, an Indian with an iron collar around his neck and chains attached to his feet, knocked at the door of the Court of Appeals of Saint-Denis de la Réunion. He declared he was regularly beaten, shackled and thrown into jail by his master, even though he was theoretically free. He had already lodged several complaints with the Immigration Protection Society, which nevertheless refused to take legal action against the white planter. When the planter learned of the com- plaints, he had the laborer chained and flogged. It was several years before the court finally sentenced the planter to pay the Indian meager damages.1 Like him, more and more “coolies” (Indian and Chinese immigrants) took their cases to court; despite the indifferent and sometimes corrupt judges, the coolies persisted. Little by little, they began setting aside small amounts of money; after five, seven or sometimes ten or twelve years they went home to India. Disasters frequently befell them during these return voyages: the ships were old, often overloaded and exposed to the dangers of the crossing, and the white officers had no misgivings about abandon- ing the vessels along with their passengers. The scandals multiplied, but no real solution was found.2 Worse still, the expansion of European colonial empires led to violent treatment and coerced displacement of laborers. The port of Aden, a British protectorate located far from Reunion Island, was an important © The Author(s) 2018 1 A. Stanziani, Labor on the Fringes of Empire, Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70392-3_1 2 A. STANZIANI commercial center on the way to Marseille and London, which were henceforth connected to the Indian Ocean via the Suez Canal. Aden was also a haven for slaves escaping from Africa or from the Persian Gulf itself, where they were employed as pearl fishermen. In 1878, thirteen Africans landed in Aden, claiming to be Siddi sailors. Eleven of them worked as pearl divers for the same owner; they requested and were granted asylum.3 Later on, however, they were transferred as “free servants” to new British masters in Aden or to other British possessions in India and southern Africa.